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ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition
Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
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Chapter 3
Cell Structure
Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm
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Generalized Cell 1
Figure 3.1
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Cell Membrane
The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the
outermost component of a cell.
It forms a boundary between material in inside
the cell and the outside.
Materials inside the cell are intracellular and
those outside are extracellular.
It acts as a selective barrier.
Phospholipid Structure
A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region
that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that
is hydrophobic.
The polar region is exposed to water around the
membrane.
The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the
membrane.
Figure 3.2a
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Diffusion 1
Concentration Gradient
A concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of a solute in a solvent between
two points divided by the distance between the
two points.
The concentration gradient is said to be steeper
when the concentration difference is large
and/or the distance is small.
Diffusion 2
Figure 3.3
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Figure 3.4
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Figure 3.5
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Osmosis 1
Hypotonic
A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration
of solutes and a higher concentration of water
relative to the cytoplasm of the cell.
The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure,
than the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it
to swell.
If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a
process called lysis.
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Isotonic
A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the
same solute concentrations inside and outside
the cell.
The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
Hypertonic
The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution
has a lower solute concentration and higher
water concentration than the surrounding
solution.
Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the
hypertonic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage,
or crenation.
Osmosis 2
Solutions
Figure 3.7
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©David M. Phillips/Science Source
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Carrier-Mediated Transport 1
Carrier-Mediated Transport 2
Facilitated Diffusion 1
Facilitated Diffusion 2
Figure 3.8
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Active Transport
Active transport is a carrier-mediated process,
requiring ATP, that moves substances across the
cell membrane from regions of lower
concentration to those of higher concentration
against a concentration gradient.
Active transport processes accumulate
necessary substances on one side of the cell
membrane at concentrations many times
greater than those on the other side.
Sodium-Potassium Pump 1
Sodium-Potassium Pump 2
Figure 3.9
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Figure 3.10
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Endocytosis
Endocytosis is a process that that brings
materials into cell using vesicles.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a
specific substance binds to the receptor
molecule and is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when
solid particles are ingested.
Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed,
and they contain liquid rather than solid
particles.
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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Figure 3.11
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Exocytosis 1
Exocytosis 2
Figure 3.12
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(b) ©Dr. Birgit H. Satir
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Generalized Cell 2
Figure 3.1
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Cell Nucleus 1
Cell Nucleus 2
Cell Nucleus 3
Cell Nucleus 4
Figure 3.13
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(b,c) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source
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Chromosome Structure
Figure 3.14
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Ribosomes
Ribosome components are produced in the
nucleolus.
Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins
are produced.
Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles,
such as the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes that are not attached to any other
organelle are called free ribosomes.
Ribosome Production
Figure 3.15
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Endoplasmic Reticulum 1
Endoplasmic Reticulum 2
Figure 3.16a
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Golgi Apparatus 1
Golgi Apparatus 2
Figure 3.13
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(b) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
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Lysosomes
Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the Golgi apparatus.
They contain a variety of enzymes that function
as intracellular digestive systems.
Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with
lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in
the endocytotic vesicles.
One example is white blood cells phagocytizing
bacteria.
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Lysosome Action
Figure 3.18
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Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound
vesicles containing enzymes that break down
fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2).
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid
and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a
cell.
The enzymes in peroxisomes break down
hydrogen.
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Mitochondria 1
Mitochondria 2
A Mitochondrion
Figure 3.19
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(b) ©EM Research Services, Newcastle University RF
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The Cytoskeleton 2
Microtubules
Microtubules are hollow structures formed from
protein subunits.
The microtubules perform a variety of roles,
including helping to support the cytoplasm of
cells, assisting in cell division, and forming
essential components of certain organelles, such
as cilia and flagella.
Microfilaments
Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from
protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm, determining cell shape.
Some microfilaments are involved with cell
movement.
Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to
shorten, or contract.
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from
protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than
microfilaments.
They provide mechanical support to the cell.
A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin,
a protein associated with skin cells.
The Cytoskeleton 1
Figure 3.20
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Centrioles
The centrosome is a specialized area of
cytoplasm close to the nucleus where
microtubule formation occurs.
It contains two centrioles, which are normally
oriented perpendicular to each other.
Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle
composed of microtubules.
The centriole is involved in the process of
mitosis.
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Centriole
Figure 3.21
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Cilia
Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.
They are responsible for the movement of
materials over the top of cells, such as mucus.
Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from
the cell and are composed of microtubules.
Flagella
Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia
but are much longer, and they usually occur only
one per cell.
Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which
propels the sperm cell.
Microvilli
Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell
membrane that are supported by microfilaments.
They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and
they increase the surface area of those cells.
They are abundant on the surface of cells that line
the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which
absorption is an important function.
DNA 1
DNA 2
Gene Expression
Gene expression, which is protein synthesis,
involves transcription and translation.
Transcription involves copying DNA into
messenger RNA.
Translation involves messenger RNA being used
to produce a protein.
Transcription 1
Transcription 2
Transcription 3
Transcription 4
Figure 3.23
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Translation 1
Translation 2
Synthesis
Figure 3.24
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Figure 3.22
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DNA Replication
Figure 3.25
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Mitosis
Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells
from a single parent cell.
Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Prophase
During prophase the chromatin condenses to
form visible chromosomes.
Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to
assist in breaking the centromere between the
chromatids and move the chromosomes to
opposite sides of the cell.
The nuclear membrane dissolves.
Metaphase
During metaphase, the chromosomes align near
the center of the cell.
The movement of the chromosomes is regulated
by the attached spindle fibers.
Anaphase
At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids
separate and each chromatid is called a
chromosome.
Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is
moved by the spindle fibers toward the centriole
at one of the poles of the cell.
At the end of anaphase, each set of
chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of
the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide.
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Telophase
During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the
daughter cells become organized to form two
separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter
cell.
The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble
the genetic material during interphase.
Following telophase, cytoplasm division is
completed, and two separate daughter cells are
produced.
Figure 3.26
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images
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Differentiation
A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a
single cell, then a great number of mitotic
divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the
body.
The process by which cells develop with
specialized structures and functions is called
differentiation.
During differentiation of a cell, some portions of
DNA are active, but others are inactive.
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Apoptosis
Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a
normal process by which cell numbers within
various tissues are adjusted and controlled.
In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra
tissue, such as cells between the developing
fingers and toes.
In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates
excess cells to maintain a constant number of
cells within the tissue.
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Tumors
Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.
They are due to problems occurring in the cell
cycle.
Some tumors are benign and some are
malignant (cancer).
Malignant tumors can spread by a process,
termed metastasis.