重複被害

Dr. 林耿徽
TYPES OF
RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION
TYPES OF
RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION
 EXTENT OF RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION
Crime in England and Wales data showed that of those individuals who
experienced any type of violent victimization, 23% experienced two or
more incidents during the previous 12 months. 45% of domestic violence
victims and 19% of acquaintance violence victims experienced more than
one incident.
Findings from the General Social Survey on Victimization in Canada also
highlight that 38% of victims experienced more than one incident in 2004.
Victims of intimate partner violence, rape, assault, and property
victimization are all at risk of experiencing a subsequent incident
following their initial victimization.
National Violence Against Women Survey show that female victims of
intimate partner physical assault reported being assaulted on average 6.9
times by the same partner, whereas men reported experiencing an average
4.4 assaults by the same intimate partner.
EXTENT OF RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION
Women in the National Violence Against Women Study who had
been raped averaged 2.9 rapes during the previous 12 months.
7% of college students in the National Women Sexual Victimization
Study had experienced more than one sexual victimization incident
during the previous academic year.
National Youth Survey revealed that almost 60% of youth who had
been assaulted were actually repeat victims.
A proportion of burglary victims in the British Crime Survey (BCS)
were repeat victims—14% in 2004.
EXTENT OF RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION
These recurring victims also experience a disproportionate share of all victimization events.
6% of the respondents in the BCS over 10 years experienced 68% of all the thefts that
occurred.
University students in the East Midlands of England showed that 10% of the victims of
property crime accounted for 56% of all the property crime incidents.
The 2% of respondents in Canada’s General Social Survey who were recurring violent
victims had experienced 60% of all the violent victimizations.
3% of personal crime victims in the BCS accounted for 78% of all personal crime
victimizations.
7% of college women experienced more than one sexual victimization incident during the
previous academic year and that these women experienced almost three-fourths of all sexual
victimizations that occurred.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION - TIME COURSE
Research on residential burglary shows that a subsequent burglary is likely to happen
within a month after the initial burglary incident.
Half of the second residential burglaries in Canada that were reported to the police
occurred within 7 days of the first burglary.
25% of repeat burglary incidents occurred within a week and just more than half
occurred within a month in a study that examined police call data in Tallahassee,
Florida.
This period of heightened risk holds true for domestic violence, sexual victimization,
and near repeats.
Of the households that had called the police for domestic violence once, 35% had done
so again within 5 weeks.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RECURRING
VICTIMIZATION - TIME COURSE
For college women’s sexual victimization, most subsequent incidents happened
within the same month or 1 month after the initial incident.
After a burglary occurs, burglaries within 200 meters of the burgled home are at
greatest risk of being burgled for a 2-week period.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION –
VICTIM PRONENESS
Most likely, when a person is victimized a subsequent time, he or she will experience
the same type of victimization previously experienced.
A theft victim is likely to experience another theft if victimized a second time. E.g.,
larceny, burglary, household larceny, and assault.
In a sample of sexual victimization incidents occurring among college women, rape
incidents were likely to be followed by rape incidents, and sexual coercion incidents
were likely to be followed by sexual coercion incidents.
RISK FACTORS FOR
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION -
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL
Males are more likely to be victims repeatedly than females for all types of
victimizations except sexual victimization.
Younger people are at a greater risk for recurring victimization than are older persons.
Single and divorced persons face greater risks of repeat victimization than others.
Low, as compared to high, socioeconomic status is a risk factor for personal recurring
victimization, but having high socioeconomic status actually places you at greater risk
of repeat property victimization.
Unemployed persons are more likely than employed persons to be victimized more
than once.
Among persons diagnosed with a serious mental illness, Black persons remain at a
greater risk of experiencing recurring victimization as compared with White persons
once released from a psychiatric hospital.
RISK FACTORS FOR
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION -
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL
People who spend nights away from home more frequently face greater chances of
being repeatedly victimized than those who spend less time away from home at
night.
Using public transportation after 6 p.m. also places people at risk for repeat
victimization.
repeat victimization are linked to spending time with delinquent peers and
involvement in delinquency.
The link between alcohol use and recurring victimization has been found for sexual
victimization.
RISK FACTORS FOR
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION -
INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL
Genetic factors account for 64% of the variance in repeat victimization. The DRD4
gene, codes for the production of dopamine receptors, produces less efficient
receptors and has been linked to attention-related problems, novelty seeking, and
conduct disorder.
Women who have been sexually revictimized often experience high levels of
psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. PTSD
may inhibit women’s ability to quickly identify risk.
Two-thirds of victims, all of whom had been diagnosed with a major mental
disorder, experienced a recurring victimization during one of the follow-ups that
occurred over the following year.
RISK FACTORS FOR
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION -
NEIGHBORHOOD-LEVEL
Living in urban areas places people at risk for repeat victimization.
Living in areas with a high concentration of single-parent households puts people at
risk for recurring victimization.
Neighborhood disorder has also been linked to an increase in the number of assault,
larceny, and vandalism recurring victimizations experienced by youth and to repeat
property victimizations experienced by adults.
Higher incomes have been linked to recurring property victimization.
Younger households, having two or more adults in the household, having more
children in the household, and having more than one car increased the number of
crime victimizations.
The shorter the time people have lived in a residence, the greater the likelihood of
repeat victimization.
THEORETICAL
EXPLANATIONS
Risk heterogeneity
Those qualities or characteristics that initially place a victim at risk will keep that
person at risk of experiencing a subsequent victimization if unchanged.
THEORETICAL
EXPLANATIONS
State dependence
What happens during and after the victimization matter.
How the victim and the offender act and react to the victimization event will predict
risk of becoming a recurrent victim.
Victims engage in greater, not lower, levels of risky behavior after being victimized.
One possible explanation for why a person may not change risky behaviors is rooted
in low self-control.
Structural constraints that may limit individuals from changing their risky behaviors.
CONSEQUENCES OF
RECURRING VICTIMIZATION
Experiencing more than one victimization can be particularly bad for victims.
Youth who experience polyvictimization also experience significantly more distress
than those youth who experience a single type of victimization.
The number of sexual assaults experienced during a woman’s lifetime was predictive
of current depressive symptoms, current PTSD symptoms, poor health, and binge
drinking.
行為危險因子
個人特質
暴露於犯罪
Q&A
How does routine activities/lifestyles theory fit within the state dependence and risk
heterogeneity explanations of recurring victimization? How is it different?
Think of you or someone you know who has been a victim. Have you or that person
been victimized more than once? If so, what type of recurring victim are you or is he
or she? Why? What factors led to you or him or her becoming this type of recurring
victim? What could have been done to prevent you or him or her from becoming a
recurring victim?
Why do you think that recurring victimization is likely to happen so quickly when it
does occur?
VICTIMS’
RIGHTS AND
REMEDIES
VICTIMS’ RIGHTS AND
REMEDIES
The first law that guaranteed victims’ rights and protections was passed in Wisconsin in
1979.
In all states, the right to compensation, notification of rights, notification of court
appearances, and ability to submit victim impact statements before sentencing are granted
to at least some victim classes.
Other common rights given to victims in the majority of states are the right to restitution,
to be treated with dignity and respect, to attend court and sentencing hearings, and to
consult with court personnel before plea bargains are offered or defendants released from
custody.
Other rights extended to victims are the right to protection and the right to a speedy trial.
Importantly, some states explicitly protect victims’ jobs while they exercise their right to
participate in the criminal justice system.
NOTIFICATION
The right to notification allows victims to stay apprised of events in their cases.
E.g., when their offender is arrested and released from custody after arrest, the time
and place of court proceedings and any changes made to originally scheduled
proceedings, a parole hearing and when the offender is released from custody at the
end of a criminal sanction.
PARTICIPATION AND
CONSULTATION
Submitting or presenting a victim impact statement.
In the VIS, the harm caused is typically detailed, with psychological, economic, social, and
physical effects included. VIS also included a recommendation as to what the offender’s sentence
should be.
It gives victims a right to be heard in court and allows their pain and experience to be
acknowledged in the criminal justice process.
It may help the judge give a sentence that is more reflective of the true harm caused to the victim.
Also, it may prove beneficial to offenders to hear the impact of their crimes.
When a VIS is made in capital cases, there is an increased likelihood that the offender will be
sentenced to death. being exposed to a VIS may increase feelings of hostility, anger, and
vengefulness toward offenders.
PARTICIPATION
AND
CONSULTATION
Making a VIS can be traumatizing for
victims.
Victims may also be dissatisfied if their
recommendations are not followed.
Q: Does an offender deserve a more
severe penalty because a VIS is made?
Consulting with judges and/or
prosecutors before any plea bargains are
offered or bail is set.
RIGHT TO
PROTECTION
Participation in the criminal justice system may, in
fact, endanger victims - fearful of the offender and
the offender’s friends and family.
safety measures in their victims’ rights e.g., to get
no-contact or protective orders that prohibit the
defendant from having any contact with the victim,
secure waiting facilities in court buildings.
Victim privacy – minimal disclosure of victim
information in criminal justice records.
RIGHT TO A SPEEDY TRIAL
This right given to victims ensures that
the judge considers the victim’s interests
when ruling on motions for continuance.
accelerated dispositions are provided in
cases with disabled, elderly, or minor
children victims.
FINANCIAL REMEDY - VICTIM
COMPENSATION
Only victims of rape, assault, child sexual abuse, drunk driving, domestic violence,
and homicide are eligible, because these crimes are known to create undue hardship
for victims.
Report the victimization promptly to law enforcement, usually within 72 hours of the
victimization, unless good cause can be shown, such as being a child, incarcerated,
or otherwise incapacitated.
Cooperate with law enforcement and prosecutors in the investigation and
prosecution of the case.
Submit application for compensation that includes evidence of expenses within a
specified time, generally 1 year from the date of the crime.
Show that costs have not been compensated by other sources such as insurance or
other programs.
 VICTIM COMPENSATION
Ensure they have not participated in criminal
conduct or significant misconduct that caused or
contributed to the victimization.
Victim compensation covers a wide variety of
expenses, including medical care costs, mental
health treatment costs, funeral costs, and lost
wages. Some programs have expanded coverage to
include crime scene cleanup, transportation costs
to receive treatment, moving expenses,
housekeeping costs, and child-care costs, the
replacement or repair of eyeglasses or corrective
lenses, dental care, prosthetic devices, and forensic
sexual assault exams.
The amount of compensation generally ranges
from $10,000 to $25,000 per incident.
 Restitution is money paid by the
offender to the victim.
Restitution is made by court
order as part of a sentence.
Expenses include medical and
dental bills, counseling,
transportation, and lost wages,
cover costs of stolen or damaged
property, unlike in crime victim
compensation programs.
Restitution cannot be ordered to
cover costs associated with pain
and suffering; it is limited to
RESTITUTION tangible and documentable
expenses.
 CIVIL
LITIGATION
To seek redress for these uncompensated costs,
victims may pursue civil litigation against the
offender.
Persons can seek money for emotional as well
as physical harm.
In the civil justice system, liability must be
proved by a fair preponderance of the
evidence, not beyond a reasonable doubt,
which is the standard of proof in the criminal
justice system.
 VICTIM/WITNESS
ASSISTANCE
PROGRAMS
Victim/witness assistance programs are designed to ensure
that victims know their rights and have the resources
necessary to exercise these rights.
Providing victims with background information regarding the
court procedure and their basic rights as crime victims,
notification about court dates and changes to those dates.
Information regarding victim compensation and aid them in
applying for compensation if eligible.
Receiving assistance in doing VIS
Making sure the victims and witnesses have separate waiting
areas in the courthouse for privacy.
Attend court proceedings and the trial with the victim and his
or her family.
FAMILY
JUSTICE
CENTERS
Often provide counseling,
advocacy, legal services, health
care, financial services, housing
assistance, employment
referrals, and other services.
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE
A victim-centered approach is up to him or her or the family to seek reparation from
the offender.
The way to reduce crime is not by solely punishing the offender or by adhering to a
strict adversarial system, but all entities impacted by crime should come to the table
and work together to deal with crime and criminals. As such, it sees crime as harm to
the state, the community, and the victim.
Restorative justice is a process whereby parties with a stake in a specific offence
collectively resolve how to deal with the aftermath of the offence and its
implications for the future.
E.g., restitution programs, victim–offender mediation or reconciliation programs,
Family or community group conferencing.
VICTIM–OFFENDER
MEDIATION PROGRAMS
Designed to provide victims—usually those of property crimes and minor assaults—a
chance to meet with their offenders in a structured environment.
Mediation programs in criminal justice use humanistic mediation, which is dialogue
driven rather than settlement driven, emphasizing healing and peacemaking over
problem solving and resolution.
Participation in victim–offender mediation has been shown to reduce fear and anxiety
among crime victims, and desire to seek revenge against or harm offenders.
Both offenders and victims report high levels of satisfaction with the victim–offender
mediation process, compared to those counterparts.
Offenders are more likely to complete restitution required through victim–offender
mediation.
Reduction in recidivism rates for offenders also has been found.
Q&A
What rights does the state in which you reside provide to crime victims? What rights
do you think are most important?
Why would offenders be more likely to complete restitution in victim–offender
mediation?