Chapter 2

The Biology
of Mind

PowerPoint®
Presentation
by Jim Foley

1
© 2013 Worth Publishers
Surveying the Chapter: Overview
What We Have in Mind

 Building blocks of the mind: neurons

and how they communicate
(neurotransmitters)
 Systems that build the mind: functions
of the parts of the nervous system
 Supporting player: the slower-
communicating endocrine system
(hormones)
 Star of the show: the brain and its
structures
2
Searching for the self by studying the body
Phrenology
Phrenology
(developed by Franz Gall in
the early 1800’s):
the study of bumps on the
skull and their relationship
to mental abilities and
character traits

 Phrenology yielded one big idea--

that the brain might have
different areas that do different
things (localization of function).

3
Today’s search for the biology of the self:
biological psychology

 Biological psychology includes

neuroscience, behavior genetics,
neuropsychology, and evolutionary
psychology.
 All of these subspecialties explore different
aspects of: how the nature of mind and
behavior is rooted in our biological
heritage.
 Our study of the biology of the mind begins
with the “atoms” of the mind: neurons.

4
Neurons and Neuronal Communication:
The Structure of a Neuron

There are billions of neurons

(nerve cells) throughout the body.
5
 Action potential:
a neural impulse that travels down an
axon like a wave
Just as “the wave” can flow to the right in a
stadium even though the people only move
up and down, a wave moves down an axon
although it is only made up of ion exchanges
moving in and out.
http://outreach.mcb.harvard.edu/animations/actionpotential_short.sw
f

6
 When does the cell send
the action potential?...
when it reaches a
threshold How neurons communicate
(with each other):
The
The neuron
neuron  When
When thethe The
The signal is is
receives
receives threshold is is The action transmitted
signals
signals from
from reached,
reached, the
the potential
potential to another
another
other
other action potential travels down cell.
neurons;
neurons; starts moving.
moving. the axon However, the the
some
some areare  Like aa gun,
gun, it from the cell message
message
telling
telling itit to
to either fires or
or it body to
to the
the must
fire and some
fire and some doesn’t; more must find
find a
are terminal way to cross
cross
are telling
telling itit stimulation does
does branches. aa gap
gap
not
not to fire. nothing. between
 This is known between
known asas cells.
cells. This gap
the “all-or-none” is
is also
also called
called
response. the
the synapse.
synapse.

The threshold is reached when

excitatory (“Fire!”) signals
outweigh the inhibitory (“Don’t
fire!”) signals by a certain amount.
7
 The Synapse
The synapse is a
junction between the
axon tip of the
sending neuron and
the dendrite or cell
body of the receiving
neuron.

The synapse is
also known as the
“synaptic
junction” or
“synaptic gap.”

8
 Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
are chemicals
used to send a
signal across the
synaptic gap.

9
 Reuptake:
Recycling Neurotransmitters [NTs]

Reuptake:
After the neurotransmitters
stimulate the receptors on
the receiving neuron, the
chemicals are taken back
up into the sending neuron
to be used again.

10
Neural Communication:
Seeing all the Steps Together

11
 Roles of Different Neurotransmitters
Some Neurotransmitters and Their Functions
Neurotransmitter Function Problems Caused by Imbalances
Serotonin Affects mood, hunger, Undersupply linked to depression;
sleep, and arousal some antidepressant drugs raise
serotonin levels
Dopamine Influences movement, Oversupply linked to schizophrenia;
learning, attention, and undersupply linked to tremors and
emotion decreased mobility in Parkinson’s
disease and ADHD
Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate as
(ACh) learning, and memory Alzheimer’s disease progresses
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness Undersupply can depress mood and
and arousal cause ADHD-like attention problems
GABA (gamma- A major inhibitory Undersupply linked to seizures,
aminobutyric acid neurotransmitter tremors, and insomnia
Glutamate A major excitatory Oversupply can overstimulate the
neurotransmitter; brain, producing migraines or seizures;
involved in memory this is why some people avoid MSG
(monosodium glutamate) in food 12
 Serotonin Dopamine
pathways pathways
Networks of neurons that Networks of neurons that
communicate with serotonin communicate with dopamine are
involved in focusing attention and
help regulate mood. controlling movement.

13
Hearing the message
How Neurotransmitters Activate
Receptors
When the
key fits,
the site is
opened.

14
 Keys that almost fit:
Agonist and Antagonist Molecules

An agonist molecule fills An antagonist molecule fills

the receptor site and the lock so that the
neurotransmitter cannot get
activates it, acting like the in and activate the receptor
neurotransmitter. site.

15
 The Inner and Outer Parts of the
Nervous System
The peripheral
The central nervous system
nervous [PNS] consists of
system ‘the rest’ of the
nervous system.
[CNS]
consists of The PNS gathers
the brain and sends
information to
and spinal and from the
cord. rest of the body.
The CNS
makes
decisions
for the
body.

16
More Parts of the Nervous System

17
 The
Autonomic
Nervous
System:
The sympathetic
NS arouses
(fight-or-flight)
The
parasympathetic
NS calms
(rest and digest)

18
The Body’s “Slow but Sure”
Endocrine Message System
 The endocrine system
sends molecules as
messages, just like the
nervous system, but it
sends them through
the bloodstream
instead of across
synapses.
 These molecules, called
hormones, are
produced in various
glands around the
body.
 The messages go to the
brain and other tissues.
The endocrine system refers to a set of
glands that produce chemical messengers
called hormones. 19
 produce hormones such as
Adrenal Glands adrenaline/epinephrine,
noradrenaline/norepinephrine, and
cortisol.
1. The sympathetic “fight
Adrenal Glands or flight” nervous
system responds to
stress by sending a
message to adrenal
glands to release the
hormones listed above.
2. Effect: increased heart
rate, blood pressure,
and blood sugar. These
provide ENERGY for the
Pancreas fight or flight!

20
The Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland is the
“master gland” of the
endocrine system.
 It is controlled through the
nervous system by the
nearby brain area--the
hypothalamus.
 The pituitary gland Pituitary gland
produces hormones that
regulate other glands such
as the thyroid.
 It also produces growth
hormone (especially during
sleep) and oxytocin, the
“bonding” hormone.

21
Investigating the
Brain and Mind:
How did we move beyond
phrenology and get inside the
skull and under the “bumps”?
by finding what happens when
part of the brain is damaged or
otherwise unable to work properly
by looking at the structure and
activity of the brain: CAT, MRI,
fMRI, and PET scans
Strategies for finding out
what is different about the
mind when part of the brain
isn’t working normally:
case studies of accidents
(e.g. Phineas Gage)
case studies of split-brain
patients (corpus callosum
cut to stop seizures)
lesioning brain parts in
animals to find out what
happens
chemically numbing,
magnetically deactivating,
or electrically stimulating
parts of the brain
22
Studying cases of brain damage
When a stroke or injury damages part of the brain, we
have a chance to see the impact on the mind.

23
Intentional brain damage:
Lesions (surgical
destruction of brain
tissue)
 performed on animals
 has yielded some insights,
especially about less
complex brain structures
 no longer necessary, as
we now can chemically or
magnetically deactivate
brain areas to get similar
information

24
 Split-Brain Patients
 “Split” = surgery in
which the connection
between the brain
hemispheres is cut in
order to end severe
full-brain seizures
 Study of split-brain
patients has yielded
insights discussed at
the end of the chapter

25
We can stimulate parts of the brain
to see what happens
 Parts of the brain, and even neurons, can
be stimulated electrically, chemically, or
magnetically.
 This can result in behaviors such as
giggling, head turning, or simulated vivid
recall.
 Researchers can see which neurons or
neural networks fire in conjunction with
certain mental experiences, and even
specific concepts.

26
 EEG:
electroencephalogram
An EEG (electroencephalogram)
is a recording of the electrical
waves sweeping across the
brain’s surface. It is useful in
studying seizures and sleep.
PET: positron emission
tomography
The PET scan allows us to see
what part of the brain is active
by tracing where a radioactive
form of glucose goes while the
brain performs a given task.
27
 MRI: magnetic
fMRI: functional MRI
resonance imaging

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) Functional MRI reveals

makes images from signals produced by brain activity and
brain tissue after magnets align the spin function rather than
of atoms. structures.
The arrows below show ventricular
enlargement in a schizophrenic patient Functional MRI
(right). compares successive
MRI images taken a
split second apart, and
shows changes in the
level of oxygen in
bloodflow in the brain.

28
Areas of the brain and their functions

29
 The Brainstem:
Pons and Medulla

 The medulla controls the most basic functions such as heartbeat and breathing.

 Someone with total brain damage above the medulla could still breathe
independently, but someone with damage in this area could not.

 The pons helps coordinate automatic and unconscious movements.

30
The Thalamus (“Inner Chamber”)
 The thalamus is the “sensory
switchboard” or “router.”
 All sensory messages, except
smell, are routed through the
thalamus on the way to the
cortex (higher, outer brain).
 The thalamus also sends
messages from the cortex to
the medulla and cerebellum.

31
 Reticular (“Netlike”) Formation

 The reticular formation is a

nerve network in the
brainstem.
 It enables alertness, (arousal)
from coma to wide awake (as
demonstrated in the cat
experiments).
 It also filters incoming sensory
information.

32
 Cerebellum (“little brain”)
The cerebellum
helps coordinate
voluntary
movement such as
playing a sport.

The cerebellum has many other

functions, including enabling
nonverbal learning and memory.
33
The Limbic (“Border”) System
The limbic system coordinates:
 emotions such as fear and
aggression.
 basic drives such as hunger and
sex.
 the formation of episodic
memories.
The hippocampus (“seahorse”)
 processes conscious, episodic
memories.
 works with the amygdala to
form emotionally charged
memories.
The Amygdala (“almond”)
 consists of two lima bean-
sized neural clusters.
 helps process emotions,
especially fear and aggression.

34
 The Amygdala
 Electrical
stimulation of a
cat’s amygdala
provokes aggressive
reactions.
 If you move the
electrode very
slightly and cage
the cat with a
mouse, the cat will
cower in terror.

35
 The Hypothalamus:
 lies below (“hypo”) the thalamus.
Thalamus
 regulates body temperature and
ensures adequate food and
water intake (homeostasis), and
is involved in sex drive.
 directs the endocrine system via
messages to the pituitary gland.

The Hypothalamus as a Reward Center Riddle: Why did the rat

cross the grid?
Why did the rat want to
get to the other side?
Pushing the pedal that
stimulated the electrode
placed in the
hypothalamus was much
more rewarding than
food pellets. 36
Review of Brain Structures

37
 The Cerebral Cortex
The lobes consist of:
 outer grey “bark” structure that is wrinkled in order to
create more surface area for 20+ billion neurons.
 inner white stuff—axons linking parts of the brain.
 180+ billion glial cells, which feed and protect neurons
and assist neural transmission.
300 billion synaptic
connections

The brain has

left and right
hemispheres 38
The Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex:
Preview
involved in speaking and
 Frontal Lobes muscle movements and in
making plans and judgments

 Parietal Lobes include the sensory cortex

include the visual areas; they

receive visual information
 Occipital Lobes from the opposite visual field

 Temporal Lobes include the auditory

processing areas

39
 Functions of the Brain:
The Motor and Sensory Strips
Output: Motor Input: Sensory
cortex (Left cortex (Left
hemisphere hemisphere
section section receives
controls the input from the
body’s right body’s right side)
side)

 Axons Axons
receiving motor sending
signals FROM sensory
the cortex information
TO the cortex
40
 Sensory Functions of the Cortex

 The sensory strip deals

with information from
touch stimuli.
 The occipital lobe deals
with visual information.
 Auditory information is
sent to the temporal
lobe.

41
The Visual Cortex

This fMRI scan

shows
increased
activity in the
visual cortex
when a person
looks at a
photograph.

42
Association function of the cortex
More complex animals have more cortical space
devoted to integrating/associating information

43
 Association Areas:
Frontal Lobes
 The frontal lobes are
active in “executive
functions” such as
judgment, planning, and
inhibition of impulses.
 The frontal lobes are also
active in the use of
working memory and the
processing of new
memories.

44
Phineas Gage (1823-1860)
Case study: In a work accident, a metal rod shot up through Phineas Gage’s skull, destroying his eye and part of his frontal lobes.
After healing, he was able to function in many ways, but his personality changed; he was rude, odd, irritable, and unpredictable.
Possible explanation:
Damage to the frontal lobes could result in loss of the ability to suppress impulses and to modulate emotions.

45
Parietal Lobe Association Areas
This part of the brain has many functions in the
association areas behind the sensory strip:
managing input from multiple senses
performing spatial and mathematical reasoning
monitoring the sensation of movement

46
Temporal Lobe Association Areas

Some abilities managed by association areas in this “by the temples”

lobe:
recognizing specific faces
managing sensory input related to sound, which helps the
understanding of spoken words
47
Whole-brain Association Activity
Whole-brain association
activity involves complex
activities which require
communication among
association areas across the
brain such as:
memory
language
attention
meditation and spirituality
consciousness

48
Specialization and Integration
Five steps in reading a word aloud:

49
Plasticity: The Brain is Flexible
If the brain is damaged,
especially in the general
association areas of the cortex:
the brain does not repair
damaged neurons, BUT it can
restore some functions
it can form new connections,
reassign existing networks, and
insert new neurons, some
grown from stem cells

This 6-year-old had a

hemispherectomy to end life-
threatening seizures; her
remaining hemisphere
compensated for the damage.
50
 Our Two
Hemispheres

Lateralization (“going to one side”)

The two hemispheres serve some different functions.
How do we know about these differences?
Brain damage studies revealed many functions of the left
hemisphere.
Brain scans and split brain studies show more about the
functions of the two hemispheres, and how they
coordinate with each other.

51
The intact but lateralized brain
Right-Left Hemisphere Differences
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere

Thoughts and logic Feelings and intuition

Details such as “trees” Big picture such as “forest”
Language: words and Language: tone, inflection,
definitions context
Linear and literal Inferences and associations
Calculation Perception
Pieces and details Wholes, including the self

52
 Split- Brain Studies

To end severe whole-

brain seizures, some
people have had
surgery to cut the
corpus callosum,
a band of axons
connecting the
hemispheres.
Researchers have studied the impact of
this surgery on patients’ functioning.

53
 Split visual field
Each hemisphere does
not perceive what each
EYE sees. Instead, it
perceives the half of the
view in front of you that
goes with the half of the
body that is controlled
by that hemisphere.

54
Divided Awareness in the Split Brain
Try to explain the following result:

55
The divided brain in action
 Talent: people
are able to
follow two
instructions and
draw two
different shapes
simultaneously
 Drawback:
people can be
frustrated that
the right and left
sides do
different things

56