SECTION C

Heredity and variation

 Learning objectives

• Describe the process of mitosis

• Explain the importance of mitosis
• Describe the process of meiosis
• Explain the importance of meiosis
• Explain why genetic variation is important to living organisms
• Distinguish between genetic variation and environmental variation
• Explain the inheritance of a single pair of characteristics (monohybrid inheritance
 Learning objectives

• Describe the inheritance of sex in human being

• Explain the concept of genetic engineering
• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of genetic engineering
• Use tables, charts and graphs to represent data on heredity and variation
CELL DIVISION
Mitosis and meiosis
 MITOSIS

• Mitosis provides new cells for growth and to replace the worn-out cells.
• one cell divides into two genetically identical daughter cells( they have the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the origin cell)
• The cells that divide are called parent cells and the new cells which form are called daughter cells.
• In the various stages of mitosis, the cell’s chromosomes are copied and then distributed equally
between the two new nuclei of the daughter cells.
 MITOSIS

• All cells produced by mitosis from a single parent cell are considered to be a “clone”
• Each cell contains the diploid number of chromosomes
• This number is known as 2n, where n is the number of types of chromosomes
STEPS OF MITOSIS
 IMPORTANCE OF MITOSIS

• It ensures that each daughter cell has the same number and type
of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• It ensures that each daughter cell has an identical combination of
genes.
• It is the method by which all cells of a multicellular organism are
formed, hence it is essential for growth and to repair or replaced
damaged or worn-out tissue, such as skin.
• Many single-celled organisms rely on mitosis as their primary
means of asexual reproduction, forming offspring that are identical
to each other and to the parent
 MEIOSIS

• Meiosis, also called reduction division is the division of a germ cell involving two fissions of the
nucleus and giving rise to four daughter cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of
the parent cell
• Meiosis occurs only in the reproductive organs during the production of gametes. During meiosis,
four genetically non-identical cells are formed(Daughter cells).
• Each cell contains the haploid number or n number of chromosomes, i.e. half the diploid number.
 MEIOSIS

• Meiosis actually involves two divisions of the nucleus and cytoplasm of the parent cell:
● First division (meiosis I) – separates the members of each pair of chromosomes (homologous
chromosomes)
● second division (meiosis II) – separates the two copies of each individual chromosome
(chromatids).
• Prophase 1 The single chromosomes shorten,
fatten and become visible under the light
microscope each as a signal chromatid
• Metaphase-1Each chromosome divides into a
pair of identical chromatids join to one another
by the centromere
• Anaphase 1-Matching chromosomes pick up
forming homologous pairs. The nuclear
membrane disintegrates and homologous pairs
of chromosomes line up on the equator (middle)
of the cell. It is at this sage that crossover
(exchange) of genetic material occurs between
pairs of chromosomes
• Telophase 1- Homologous pairs of chromosomes
separate each moving to the opposite end of the
cell
• Prophase II-A new nuclear membrane forms
around each group of chromosomes and the cell
divides
• Metaphase 2 –The nuclear membrane
disintegrates. The chromosome arrange
themselves on the equator of the cell
• Anaphase II- The chromatids separate and move
to the opposite ends of each cell. The chromatids
are now the new chromosomes. Each cell begins
to divide
• Telophase II- Cell division occurs and a nuclear
membrane forms around each group of
chromosomes
 IMPORTANCE OF MEIOSIS
• Each daughter cell or gamete has the haploid
number of chromosomes. The diploid number can
then be restored at fertilisation.
• Each daughter cell or gamete has a different
combination of genes. This leads to variation among
offspring
 GENETIC
VARIATION
Locus The fixed position on a chromosome where a particular gene is always found
BB is homozygous dominant , bb is homozygous recessive
The importance of genetic variation

• Genetic variation is important to a population

because it enables some individuals to adapt to the
environment while maintaining the survival of the
population. More of these individuals will survive
to reproduce and when they do, they pass on the
genetic information for their beneficial
characteristics to their offspring( natural selection )
• Over time, this allows species to gradually change
and improve by becoming better adapted, i.e. it
enables species to evolve. For example, some
species of bacteria have become resistant to
almost all commonly available antibiotics, enabling
them to survive when antibiotics are used to treat
a bacterial infection or giraffes developing longer
necks over time.
Genetic or
inherited variation
• Variation that occurs as a result of  genetic information
from the parents is called inherited or genetic variation.
• Children may look a little like their father, and a little like
their mother, but they will not be identical to either of
their parents. This is because they get half of their DNA
and inherited features from each parent.
• Each egg cell and each sperm cell contains half of the
genetic information needed for an individual. When
these join at fertilisation a new cell is formed with all
the genetic information needed for an individual.
• Here are some examples of inherited variation in
humans:
• eye colour
• hair colour
• skin colour
• lobed or lobeless ears
• ability to roll your tongue
How genetic
variation Genetic variation arises in several ways:
• Meiosis- Every gamete produced by meiosis
occurs has a different combination of genes
• Sexual reproduction- During fertilization,
male and female gametes fuse in completely
random ways to create varying combination
of genes in each zygote.
How genetic variation occurs

• Mutations- A mutation is a change in the structure of a single gene,

the structure of part of a chromosome containing several genes or in
the number of chromosomes in a cell. Mutations cause new
characteristics to develop in organisms. Mutations occurring in body
cells cannot be inherited, whereas mutations occurring in a gamete or
zygote can be inherited. Examples of mutations include:
1. Albinism -a mutation in a gene controlling the production of
melanin. People or animals with albinism produce limited amounts
or no melanin in their skin, eyes and hair
2. Down’s syndrome, which occurs when an individual has an extra
chromosome 21 in each of their cells because pair 21 fails to
separate properly during meiosis and both chromosomes pass into
one gamete. Individuals with Down’s syndrome usually have slow
learning capabilities and distinctive phenotypic characteristics .
 • Environmental variation is caused by different
factors in an organism’s environment. It does
not occurs as a result of genes and is

Environmental therefore not inherited.

• Environmental factors affecting humans
variation include:
1. The type and quantity of food they eat.
2. The diseases they suffer from.
3. The drugs they take.
4. The climate they are exposed to, especially
the amount of sunlight.
5. Their upbringing and living conditions.
6. The education they receive.
7. The amount of exercise they get and their
daily activities.
Discontinuous and Continuous variation

• There are two basic types of variation within

a species: continuous variation and
discontinuous variation.

• Discontinuous variation is where

characteristics show clear cut differences
with no intermediates. Individuals can be
divided into distinct categories.
• Examples include gender, blood groups and
tongue-rolling ability, eye colour .
Characteristics showing discontinuous
variation are usually controlled by a single
gene and environmental factors have little, if
any, influence on them.
Discontinuous and Continuous variation

• Continuous variation Continuous variation is where

characteristics show continuous gradation from one extreme to
the other without a break. Most individuals usually fall in the
middle of the range with fewer at the two extremes, i.e. the
characteristics show a normal distribution.
• Examples include height, weight, foot size, hand span, hair
colour, skin colour and intelligence. Characteristics showing
continuous variation are usually controlled by many genes and
can be affected by environmental factors.
•