Chapter 2

Strength capability of timber is difficult to assess as we

have no control over its quality and growth. The
strength of timber is a function of several parameters
including the
 moisture content
 density
 duration of the applied load
 size of members and presence of various strength-
reducing characteristics such as slope of grain, knots,
fissures and wane
To vercome this difficulty, the stress grading method of
strength classification has been devised'.
Guidance on The use of timber in building and civil
engineering's structures is given in B S 5268: Structural
use of timber. This was originally divideidn to seven
parts:
• The structural design of timber members is related to
Part 2 of BS 5268, and is based on permissible stress
design philosophy in which design stresses are
derived on a statistical basis and deformations are
also limited. Elastic theory is used to analyse
structures under various loading conditions to give
the worst design case. Then timber sections are
chosen so that the permissible stresses are not
exceeded at any point of the structure.
Permissible stresses are calculated by multiplying the ‘grade stresses’, given
in Tables 7 to 12a of BS 5268 : Part 2, by the appropriate modification
factors, K-factors, to allow for the effects of parameters such as:
 load duration,
 moisture content,
 load sharing,
 section size, etc.
Applied stresses which are derived from the service loads should be less than
or equal to the permissible stresses. A summary of the K-factors used for the
calculation of permissible stresses is given in Table 2.1. Owing to changes
made to BS 5268 : Part 2 in 1996, some K-factors which were used in the
previous editions, such as IC1, K10, etc., have been withdrawn.
The permissible stress design philosophy, as in BS 5268 : Part 2, is
different
from the limit states design philosophy of Eurocode 5 which has two basic
requirements.
 The first is ultimate limit states (i.e. safety) which is usually expressed
in terms of load-carrying capacity and is achieved by factoring-up of
load values and factoring-down of material strength properties by
partial safety factors that reflect the reliability of the values that they
modify.
 The second is serviceability limit states (i.e. deformation and vibration
limits) which refers to the ability of a structural system and its elements
to perform satisfactorily in normal use.
It is important to note that in permissible stress design philosophy partial
safety factors (i.e. modification factors) are applied only to material
properties, i.e. for the calculation of permissible stresses, and not to the
loading.
2,3
Once timber has been seasoned it is stress graded; this grading
will determine the strength class of the timber to satisfy the
design requirements of BS 5268 : Part 2. Strength grading takes
into account defects within the timber such as slope of grain,
existence and extent of knots and fissures, etc. All timber used
for structural work needs to be strength graded by either visual
inspection or by an approved strength grading machine. Clause
2.5 of BS 5268 : Part 2 deals with strength grading of timber.
2,3,1
Visual grading is a manual process carried out by an approved grader.
The grader examines each piece of timber to check the size and
frequency of specific physical characteristics or defects, e.g. knots,
slope of grains, rate of growth, wane, resin pockets and distortion, etc.
The required specifications are given in BS 4978 and BS 5756 to
determine if a piece of timber is accepted in to one of the two visuals
Stress grades or rejected. These are General Structural (GS) and Special
Structural (SS) grades. Table 2 of BS 5268 : Part 2 (reproduced here as
Table 2.2) refers to main softwood combinations of species visually
graded in accordance with BS 4978.
2,3,2
Machine grading of timber sections is carried out on the principle that
strength is related to stiffness. The machine exerts pressure and bending
is induced at increments along timber length. The resulting deflection is
then automatically measured and compared with pre-programmed
criteria, which leads to the grading of timber section.
BS 5268 : Part 2, Clause 2.5 specifies that machine graded timber, other
than that carried out by North American Export Standard for Machine
Stress-rated Lumber (e.g. 1450f-1.3E), should meet the requirements of
BS EN 519. To this effect timber is graded directly to the strength class
boundaries and marked accordingly.
Introduction to BS 5268: Part 2: 1996 13 In general less material is
rejected if it is machine graded, however timber is also visually inspected
during machine grading to ensure major defects do not exist.
2,4
The concept of grouping timber into strength classes was introduced
in to the UK with BS 5268 :P art 2 in 1984 strengctlha sses offer a
number oafd vantages both to the designer and the supplier of
timber. The designer can undertake his design without the need to
check on the availability and price of
a large numbeorf speciesa nd grades which he might use. Suppliers
can supply
any of the specieslgrade combinations that meet the strength class
called for
in a specification. The concept also allows new spectoie bs e
introduced onto
the market without affecting existing specificationsf or timber
The latest strength classes used itnh e current version of BS 5268 :P art 2 :
1996 relate to the European strength classes which are defined in BS EN
338 : 1995 Structural timber. Strength classes. There are a total of 16
strength
classes, C14 to C40 for softwoods and D30 to D70 for hardwoods as given
in Table 7 of BS 5268 : Part 2 : 1996 (reproduced here as Table 2.3). The
number in each strength class refers to its ‘characteristic bending strength’
value, for example, C40 timber has a characteristic bending strength of
40N/mm2. It is to be noted that characteristic strength values are
considerably
larger than the grade stress values used iBnS 5268 :P art 2, as they
do not include effects of long-term loading and safety factors.
soft wood grading: Softwoods which satisfy the requirements for strength
classes given in BSEN 338 when graded in accordance with BS4978 and
American timber standards NLGA and NGRDL are given in Tables 2, 3,4
and 5 of BS 5268 : Part 2. The new strength classes for softwoods are C14,
C16, C18, C22, C24, TR26, C27, C30, C35 and C40. However it is likely
that the old strength class system (i.e. SC1t o SC9) may be encountered for
some time. A comparison of the lowest of the new strength class (C classes)
against the most common old SC classes can be made: SC3 compares with
C16, SC4 with C24, and SC5 with C27. TR26 timber, which is commonly
used for axially loaded members (i.e. trussed rafters), is equivalent to the
superseded M75 European redwood/whitewood.
• Hardwood grading: Tropical hardwoods which
satisfy the requirements for
• strength classes given in BS EN 338 when
graded to HS grade in accordance
• with BS 5756 are given in Table 6 of BS 5268 :
Part 2 : 1996. The strength
• classes for tropical hardwoods are D30, D35,
D40, D50, D60 and D70
• Grade stresses: Grade stresses and moduli of
elasticity for service classes land 2 (described
in Section 2.5.2a) re given in Table7 of BS 5268
:P art 2 for 16 strength classes, and in Tables 8
to 12a for individual softwood and
• hardwood species and grades. Table 7 is
reproduced here as Table 2.3.
2,5
As mentioned previously, there are several factors
which influence timber
strength and hence they should be considered in
the analysis-design process
of all structural timber members, assemblies and
frameworks. The main
design criteria recommended by BS 5268 : Part 2,
Clause l .6 for consideration
are listed below.
2,5,1
For the purpose of design, loading should be in
accordance with
BS 6399 : Parts 1, 2, and 32 and CP 3: Chapter V :
Part 23 or other relevant
standards, where applicable.
2,5,2
Due to the effects of moisture content on mechanical properties of timber,
the permissible property values should be those corresponding to one of
thethree service classes described in Clause 1.6.4 and given in Table 1 of
BS 5268 : Part 2 : 1996. These are summarised below:
(1) Service class I refers to timber used internally in a continuously heated
building. The average moisture content likely to be attained in service
condition is 12%.
(2) Service class 2 refers to timber used in a covered building. The average
moisture content likely to be attained in service condition if building is
generally heated is 15%, and if unheated, 18%.
(3) Service class 3 refers to timber used externally and fully exposed. The
average moisture content likely to be attained in service condition is
over 20%.
Grade stress and elastic moduli values given in
Tables 7 to 12a of
BS 5268 : Part 2 apply to various strength classes
and timber species in
service classes 1 and 2. For service class 3 condition
they should be multiplied
by the modification factor K2 from Table 13 of the
code (reproduced here
as Table 2.4).
2,5,3
As moisture content affects the structural
properties of timber significantly,
BS 5268 : Part 2 : 1996 recommends that in
order to reduce movement and
creep under load the moisture content of timber
and wood-based panels
when installed should be close to that likely to
be attained in service.
2,5,4
Duration of load affects timber strength and therefore the permissible
stresses. The grade stresses (Tables 7 to 12a) and the joint strengths given
in
BS 5268 :Part 2 are applicable to long-term loading. Because timber and
wood-based materials can sustain a much greater load for a short period (a
few minutes) than fora long period (several years), the grade stressaens d
the joint loads may be increased for other conditions of loading by the
modification factors given in the appropriate sections of BS 5268 : Part 2.
Table 14 of BS 5268: Part 2 (reproduced here as Table 2.5) gives the
modification factor K3 by which all grade stresses (excluding moduli of
elasticity and shear moduli) should be multiplied for various durations
of loading.
2,5,5
The bending, tension and compression and moduli of elasticity given in
Part 2 of BS 5268 are applicable to materials 300 mm deep (or wide, for
tension). Because these properties of timber are dependent on section size
and size related grade effects, the grade stresses should be modified for
section sizes other than 300 mm deep by the modification factors specified in
the appropriate sections of the code.
In general, it is possible to design timber structures using any size of
timber. However, since the specific use is normally not known at the time
of conversion, sawmills tend to produce a range of standard sizes known as
‘customary’ sizes. Specifying such customary sizes will often reisnu gltr eater
availability and savings in cost4.
The customary lengths and sizes produced by sawmills in the UK, normally available from stock,
are given in Tables NA.1 to NA.4 of the National Annex to BS EN 336 : 1995 which uses target sizes
as the basis for
the standard. Further information and details of the customary lengths and
sizes are given in Appendix A.
2,5,6
The grade stresses given in Part 2 of BS 5268 are applicable to individual
pieces of structural timber. Where a number of pieces of timber (in general
four or more) at a maximum spacing of 610 mcemn tre to centre act together
to support a common load, then the grade stresses can be modified
(increased) in accordance with the appropriate sections of the code.
In a load-sharing system such as rafters, joists, trusses or wall studs
spaced at a maximum of 610 mm centre to centre, and which has adequate
provision for the lateral distribution of loads by means of purlins, binders,
boarding, battens, etc., the appropriate grade stresses can be multiplied
by the load-sharing modification factor K8 which has a value of 1.1.
In addition, BS 5268 :Part 2 recommends that the mean modulus of elasticity
should be used to calculate deflections and displacements induced by
static loading conditions.
Therefore in a load-sharing system:
~odificationfa ctor K8 = 1. l
Modulus of elasticity E = Emem
It is to be noted that special provisions are provided in BS 5268 : Part
2 for
built-up beams, trimmer joists and lintels, and laminated beams;
these are
given in Clauses 2.10.10, 2.10.1 1 and Section 3 of the code. It is also
important ton ote that the provisions for load-sharing systems do
note xtend
to the calculation of modification factor KI2 for load-sharing columns.
2,5,7
grade stress and moduli of elasticity values may be used:
tension perpendicular to = 5 x shear stress parallel to
torsional shear, Ttorsjon = 5 x shear stress parallel to
rolling shear, Tr = 3 x shear stress parallel to
modulus of elasticity I to = X Ernean or min
grain, EL
shear modulus, G = B X Ernean or min
permissible compressive stress = CFc,ah,//- (C FC,ah,//- G c , a h , l )
s in a
where the load is inclined at an
angle a to the grain, C T ~ , ~ ~ , ~
2,6
The following symbols and subscripts are used
to identify section properties
of timber elements, applied loading conditions,
type of force and induced
and permissible stresses. Symbols and subscripts
are kept as similar as
possible to those given in Part 2 of BS 5268 :
1996.
• ~eometricaaln d mechanical properties
• n
• a
• A
• b
• d
• E
• Emean
• Emjn
• G
• h
• l
• I
• L
• Le
• m
• n
• he
• Pk
• Prnean z
• distance
• angle of grain
• area
• breadth of beam, thickness of member
• diameter
• modulus of elasticity
• mean value of modulus of elasticity
• minimum value of modulus of elasticity
• modulus of rigidity or shear modulus
• depth of member
• radius of gyration
• second moment of area
• length, span
• effective length, effective span
• mass
• number
• slenderness ratio
• first moment of area
• characteristic density
• average density
• section modulus
• bending moment
• applied bending stress parallel to grain
• grade bending stress parallel to grain
• permissible bending stress parallel to grain
• applied shear force
• applied shear stress parallel to grain
• grade shear stress parallel to grain
• permissible shear stress parallel to grain
• applied rolling shear stress
• pernhssible rolling shear stress
• A m bending deflection
• A s shear deflection
• Atotal total deflection due to bending and shear
• A,& permissible deflection
• CF,,,,~a/p pliedc ompressive stress parallel to grain
• C T , , ,~,p/er/m issible compressive stress parallel to grain
• CF,,,,~ applied compressive stress perpendicular to grain
• o,lg,l grade compressive stress perpendicular to grain
• C F ~ , p,e~rmi,ss~ibl e compressive stress perpendicular to grain
• O,,g, I/ grade compressive stress parallel to grain
• Tension
• C F ~ , ~ , / I applied tensile stress parallel to grain
• a t l U ~per,m~iss~ibl e tensile stress parallel to grain