Arab Political Systems

Prof. Dr.Hoda Mitkees

 LEBANON
 Historical background:
The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of
1920. Its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician (Canaanite)
city-states. As part of the Levant, it was part of numerous succeeding empires
throughout ancient history, including the Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian,
Achaemenid Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Sasanid Persian empires.
Upon independence in 1943, Lebanon established a unique confessionalist form
of government, with the major religious sects apportioned specific political
powers. President Bechara El Khoury, prime minister Riad El-Solh, and
minister of defence Emir Majid Arslan II are considered the founders of
modern Lebanon and national heroes for their role in independence. Lebanon
initially enjoyed political and economic stability, which was shattered by the
bloody Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) between various political and
sectarian factions. The war partially led to military occupations by Syria (1975
to 2005) and Israel (1985 to 2000).
Lebanon was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and is a member
of the Arab League (1945), the Non-Aligned Movement (1961), Organisation
of the Islamic Cooperation (1969), and the Organisation internationale de la
francophonie (1973).
 State Institutions/ Separation of Powers:
Executive Branch:
- Lebanon is a parliamentary republic. Its political system is based on the
apportionment of parliamentary seats, high political offices, and senior
administrative positions among the country’s 17 recognized religious
communities.
- The first Lebanese Constitution, on which the present one is based, was
adopted on May 23, 1926 ,when the country was still subject to French
administration under a League of Nations mandate. The constitution was
amended as the result of an unwritten agreement, the National Pact, when
the country became independent on November 22, 1943. The constitution
was further amended in 1990 as a result of the Ta’if Accord
- The president is the head of state. He:
- Is elected by a two-thirds majority of parliament. If no presidential
candidates are able to meet the two-thirds majority requirement in the first
round of voting, a second round of voting is scheduled in which absolute
majority suffices.
- •Based on the unwritten National Pact of 1943, the president is always a
Maronite Christian
- Serves a six-year term with consecutive terms forbidden. This law has been
bypassed by one-time constitutional amendments twice in recent years
(passed by a two-thirds majority in parliament): in 1995, President Elias
Hrawi’s term was extended by three years, and in 2004 President Emile
Lahoud’s term was also extended by 3 years.
- Appoints the prime minister in consultation with the parliament.
- Promulgates laws passed by the parliament.
- Can only issue decrees with the approval of the prime minister or the
relevant minister. The only exceptions are the decree appointing the prime
minister and the decree accepting the resignation of the government.
- Negotiates and ratifies treaties in coordination with the prime minister.
-Can convene, in agreement with the prime minister, the council of ministers
to an extraordinary session.
- Has the right to request the council of ministers to revise any decision it
takes. If the council maintains its position, its decision is automatically
considered to be in force.
-Can request the council of ministers to dissolve parliament before the end of
its mandate only if the parliament fails to meet in two successive
parliamentary sessions or fails to vote on the entire budget.
-Is the commander in chief of the armed forces.
 The labenese prime minister is the head of government. He:
- Is appointed by the president in consultation with parliament. Members of
parliament also suggest candidates for the position.
- Heads the council of ministers and sets its agenda.
- Conducts the parliamentary consultations requisite to forming a cabinet.
- Must countersign all decrees along with the president of the republic, with
the exception of the decree accepting the resignation of the government.
- Is required to sign international treaties.
Based on the unwritten National Pact of 1943, the prime minister is a Sunni
Muslim.
•The Council of Ministers:
-Is appointed by the prime minister, in consultation with the president and
members of parliament. Cabinet seats are allotted to sects in proportion
to their numbers.
-Requires a vote of confidence from the parliament in order to remain in
power. A vote of no confidence is rarely exercised in practice.
-Controls the armed forces.
-Proposes legislation. - Submits the annual budget plan to parliament.
 Legislative branch:
- The National Assembly is a unicameral legislative body composed of the
Chamber of Deputies.
- The 128-member Chamber of Deputies (Majlis al-Nuwwab):
- Is elected by popular vote for five-year terms on the basis of proportional
representation for the various confessional groups. See the table below.
- Proposes legislation.
- Levies taxes and approves the budget.
- Can impeach the prime minister and ministers for high treason or for serious
neglect of their duties. The decision to impeach can only be taken by a
two-thirds majority of the total membership.
- Can question ministers on policy issues.
- Can withdraw confidence from certain ministers.
•The Ta’if Accord stipulates that a higher chamber or a senate (Majlis al
Shuyukh) must be established after the first parliament is elected on a
national, non-confessional basis. This higher chamber is supposed to
represent the various sects, while the Chamber of Deputies must be non-
sectarian. This stipulation was incorporated into the constitution in the
1990 amendments (Article 22) but the chamber was never set up.
Confession Seats
Christians 64
Maronites 34
Greek Orthodox 14
Greek Catholic 8
Armenian Orthodox 5
Armenian Catholic1
Protestant 1
Other Christian minorities 1
Muslims 64
Sunni 27
Shi’a 27
Druze 8
Alawite 2
TOTAL 128
•The Speaker of Parliament:
-Is elected by the parliament.
-Has considerable power, because he can delay the presentation to parliament of
the draft laws prepared by the executive branch.
•Based on the unwritten National Pact of 1943, the speaker of parliament is always
a Shi’i Muslim.
•Nabih Berri, leader of the Shi’i Amal party is the speaker of parliment. He was
previously elected since 1992until now.
 Judiciary:
- Lebanon’s constitution was written before extensive provisions for judicial
bodies became common. While it has been amended, there has been no
attempt to detail provisions for the judiciary. As amended in 1990,
Lebanon’s constitution has only two articles on the judiciary. Article 19
calls for the establishment of a Constitutional Council and Article 20 states
that “judicial power is to be exercised by the tribunals of various levels and
jurisdictions”. An additional article, Article 80, deals with trying ministers
and presidents.
- Lebanon’s regular court system is based on the Napoleonic code.
- There is also a separate system of specialized confessional courts with
jurisdiction over personal status matters (rules on marriage, divorce, and
inheritance) in their respective communities. The sharia courts are divided
into Sunni and Shi’a units. There are also courts for the various Christian
sects, Druze, and Jews.

 Lebanese Political parties :
Lebanon has numerous political parties, but they are of a different nature
than found in most parliamentary political systems. Political blocs are
usually based on confessional and local interests or on personal and family
allegiance rather than on political affinities. Many of the parties are
simply lists of candidates endorsed by a prominent figure.
Loose coalitions are formed for electoral purposes by negotiation among clan
leaders and candidates representing various religious communities. It is
not unusual for a party to join an electoral ticket in one constituency while
aligned with a rival party in another constituency.
- The largest political parties are confessional based. During the civil war
most parties had militias.
 • Main parliamentary groups:
- Current for the Future (Tayyar al-Mustaqbal):
Is led by Saad Hariri, younger son of Rafik Hariri, the assassinated former
prime minister. In the 2005 legislative elections, the party was the main
faction of the Rafik Hariri Martyr List, the party that won the elections.
- Free Patriotic Movement (Tayyar al-Watani al-Hurr):
Led by General Michel Aoun, the president of Lebanon the former
commander of the Lebanese army.
 Progressive Socialist Party (Hizb al-Taqadummi al-Ishtiraki):
Is led by prominent Druze leader Walid Jumblatt.
 Amal Movement (Harakat Amal):
Is one of the two main Shi’a parties in Lebanon led by the parliamentary speaker
Nabih Berri.
-Hizbollah:
- Is a political party with a military wing established to fight Israeli occupation of
South Lebanon.
-One of the main objectives of Hizbollah at the time of its establishment in the
early 1980s was to spread the Iranian Revolution. Since then, the party has
publicly declared that it will suspend its attempts to create an Islamic state in
Lebanon.
-Is regarded by many in the Arab world as a legitimate militant Shi’i political
party in Lebanon and by the U.S., Europe Israel as a terrorist organization.
-Lebanese Forces:
-Is officially secular, but in practice has always been supported almost exclusively
by Christians, especially Maronites.
-Is led by Samir Geagea, who was arrested in 1994 on charges of attempting to
undermine government authority by “maintaining a militia in the guise of a
political party, of instigating acts of violence, and of committing assassinations
Civil society in Lebanon:
•Lebanon enjoys one of the most active and least restrained civil societies in the
Arab world. There are more than 1,000 NGOs registered in Beirut alone
•The strength of Lebanon’s NGO sector stems from the major role NGOs played
during the 1975-90 civil war. Organizations filled the vacuum of state authority
and compensated for the breakdown in public services.
•Reflecting the confessional nature of Lebanese society, most NGOs are
organized by religious affiliation, but they often reach across these lines to
provide services for many outside their confessional communities. There are also
many professional associations and advocacy groups that cross confessional
lines.
•The Lebanese NGO Forum and the Collective of Lebanese Voluntary NGOs
coordinate social development work.
•Several women’s rights organizations exist. These include: the Lebanese
Association for Combating Violence against Women, the Committee for Political
Rights of Women, the Lebanese Women’s Council, the Lebanese Association of
Women Lawyers, and the Council for Lebanese Women’s Organization (acts as a
coordination body between different groups).
- •Human Rights Organizations:
-Several local human rights groups operate freely without overt government
restriction.