Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Day 1: Day 3:
TQM FMEA
Introduction to Six Sigma Process Capability
Control Charts
Define Phase
Day 4:
Project Charter Lean Enterprise
Day 2: Day 5:
Seven QC Tools VSM Exercise
Process Mapping NTPC Case Study
Exam & Wrap Up
The Evolution of Quality
Requirements:
Product: Characteristic:
Convenience
Telephone Speed dial
and speed
Crosby’s Definition of Quality
Y e a r a n d P e r io d
1 2 0 0 -1 7 9 9 1 8 0 0 -1 8 9 9 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 1 9 4 6 -P re se n t
G u ild s o f P ro d u c t P ro c e ss Q u a lity d u rin g B irth o f
m e d ie v a l E u r o p e o rie n ta tio n o rie n ta tio n W o rld W a r II to ta l q u a lity
Guilds:
Developed strict rules for
products and services.
Used stamps to identify
flawless goods.
Quality Evolution: Product Orientation
Y e a r a n d P e r io d
1 2 0 0 -1 7 9 9 1 8 0 0 -1 8 9 9 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 1 9 4 6 -P re se n t
G u ild s o f P roduct P ro c ess Q u a lity d u rin g B irth o f
m e d ie v a l E u ro p e o r ie n ta tio n o rie n ta tio n W o rld W a r II to ta l q u a lity
Y e a r a n d P e r io d
1 2 0 0 -1 7 9 9 1 8 0 0 -1 8 9 9 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 1 9 4 6 -P re se n t
G u ild s o f P ro d u c t P ro cess Q u a lity d u rin g B irth o f
m e d ie v a l E u ro p e o rie n ta tio n o r ie n ta tio n W o rld W a r II to ta l q u a lity
Y e a r a n d P e r io d
1 2 0 0 -1 7 9 9 1 8 0 0 -1 8 9 9 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 1 9 4 6 -P re se n t
G u ild s o f P ro d u c t P ro c ess Q u a lity d u r in g B irth o f
m e d ie v a l E u ro p e o rie n ta tio n o rie n ta tio n W o r ld W a r I I to ta l q u a lity
Y e a r a n d P e r io d
1 2 0 0 -1 7 9 9 1 8 0 0 -1 8 9 9 1 9 0 0 -1 9 4 0 1 9 4 1 -1 9 4 5 1 9 4 6 -P r e se n t
G u ild s o f P ro d u c t P ro c ess Q u a lity d u rin g B ir th o f
m e d ie v a l E u ro p e o rie n ta tio n o rie n ta tio n W o rld W a r II to ta l q u a lity
Developed in response to
Japanese quality movement.
Focused on improving all
processes through people
who used them.
W. Edwards Deming
Quality keys:
• Understanding
customer needs
• Process
improvement
• Statistical analysis
• Expertise of workers
• PDCA cycle
Joseph M. Juran
Quality keys:
• Features that
satisfy customers
• Freedom from
deficiencies
• Juran Trilogy®
– Quality planning
– Quality control
– Quality
improvement
Kaoru Ishikawa
Quality keys:
• Company-wide
participation
• Quality control circles
• Advanced statistical
methods and tools
• Nationwide quality
control promotion
Armand V. Feigenbaum
Quality keys:
• Total quality control
• Integration of quality
development,
maintenance, and
improvement
• Focus on internal
and external
customers
Genichi Taguchi
Quality keys:
• Quality should be
designed in.
• Quality should
minimize
deviations from a
target.
• DOE optimizes
performance.
Philip Crosby
Quality keys:
• Conformance to
requirements
• Prevention
• Zero Defects
• Price of
nonconformance
Total Quality Management
1 Customer relationships
2 Continuous improvement
3 Company-wide participation
Customer Definitions
P u ck er U p L em on a d e, In c. C o n su m ers
In te r n a l C u sto m e r s E x te r n a l
L o a d in g D o c k S o r tin g D e p a r tm e n t C u sto m e r s
S o r tin g D e p a r tm e n t J u ic in g D e p a r tm e n t
J u ic in g D e p a r tm e n t M ix in g D e p a r tm e n t
M ix in g D e p a r tm e n t B o ttlin g D e p a r tm e n t
Levels of Customer Satisfaction
1
process • S ta n d a r d iz e if d e s ir e d
r e s u lts a c h ie v e d .
improvement
is the Plan- • S e e if th e d e s ir e d r e s u lts • C a r r y o u t th e p la n .
Do-Check- w e r e o b ta in e d .
Act cycle.
C heck Do
Company-Wide Participation
3
Benefits Barriers
• Improved • “It Won’t Work
productivity and Here”
cost reduction • Perception of loss
• Increased of management
participation and authority
job satisfaction • Employees
• Opportunities for feeling “used”
professional • “Flavor of the
development month”
Quality Benefits
• Tangible • Intangible
– Increase in – Customer
earnings goodwill
– Decrease in – Alignment
waste between
– Increase in business
productivity activities
W. Edwards Deming on Quality
Employees Organizations
Customers
Suppliers Society
Benefits to Employees
Pride in products and
Product quality services
Job satisfaction
Improved communications
Process quality
Streamlined work
processes
Happier customers
Customer satisfaction
Strong customer
relationships
Profit Greater job
security/benefits
Benefits to Organizations
M arket
Share
Q u a lity P r o fit
C ost
O r g a n iz a tio n s
Quality Studies and Standards
Publication Sales
Department Department Customer
Benefits to Customers
• Streamlined processes
• Efficient communication
Product safety
Process Management
R esou rces
• P e o p le
• E q u ip m e n t
• M a te r ia l
• M oney
• T im e
P ro cess
In p u t C P O u tp u t
D
P r e c e d in g S u b seq u en t
P rocess P rocess
C u s to m e r I n flu e n c e
Introduction to Six Sigma
What is Lean Six Sigma?
Introduction
• Six Sigma goal is process perfection through
defect reduction.
• Lean goal is cycle time reduction through
elimination of waste.
“Onlythose
“Only thosecompanies
companiesthat
thateliminate
eliminatetheir
their
defectswill
defects willhave
havewhat
whatitittakes
takestotowin.”
win.”
“Breakthroughcompanies
“Breakthrough companiesstrive
strivefor
for100
100
percentDEFECT-FREE
percent DEFECT-FREEproducts
productsandand
services.”
services.”
LarryBossidy
Larry Bossidy
CEOof
CEO ofAlliedSignal
AlliedSignal
What is Six Sigma?
Methodology and Improvement Strategy
• Six Sigma is an overall strategy to accelerate improvements in
processes, products, and services–create breakthrough.
• Six Sigma measures how effective strategies are in eliminating
defects and variations from processes, products, and services.
= + + + ...
Y f(x1, x2, x3 …)
Process output (Y) is a function of (f) the inputs (Xs).
Understanding and controlling this relationship is a major
aspect of Six Sigma projects.
Focus on Variation
• Sigma (σ) refers to standard deviation, a measure of process
variation (smaller is better).
• Process Sigma is the number of units of standard deviations
between the process center and the closest specification limit
(larger is better).
• A Six Sigma process has six standard deviations (short term)
between the target and the closest specification limit.
Lower Target Upper
Spec Spec
6 Sigma
Sources of Variation
Desig
n
Process
Materi
al
$ Capabil
ity
Measurem
ent
System
Harvesting the Fruit of Six Sigma
Sweet Fruit
Design for Manufacturability
Bulk of Fruit
Process Characterization
and Optimization
----------------------------------
3 s Wall - Demand improvement
3 s Wall - Demand improvement
Ground Fruit
Logic and Intuition
f (X) Y
· Y · X1 . . . XN
· Dependent · Independent
· Output · Input-Process
· Effect · Cause
· Symptom · Problem
· Monitor · Control
Effect Inputs,
Symptom
process
Cause
Able to
Monitor Problem
Controllable
99% Good (3.8 Sigma) 99.99966% Good (6 Sigma)
20,000 lost articles of mail per hour Seven articles lost per hour
Unsafe drinking water for almost One unsafe minute every seven
15 minutes each day months
performance.
understood.
• A comparison of expectation to
experience
• A matter of degree
• A result of a good match between
supply and demand
• A predictor of repeat business
Customer Needs Translated into
“Critical To” (CT) Characteristics
Customer needs are translated into product, service or deliverable
requirements in terms of quality, delivery and cost. The “Y” of Y=f(X).
Typical Critical to Characteristics
Faster
Deployment
Stakeholder
Satisfaction
Repeatable
High probability
of success
S. Criteria Weight
No.
Higher
1 Aligned with core objectives 10
returns
2 High probability of success 10
3 Data Availability 8
4 Pain area 8
5 Process Improvement 7
Process
Improvement Ease of 6 Higher returns 8
implementation 7 Repeatable 6
Data Availability 8 Faster Deployment 5
9 Stakeholder Satisfaction 7
10 Ease of implementation 6
Project Selection Matrix Diagram
4 Pain area
5 Process Improvement
6 Higher returns
7 Repeatable
8 Faster Deployment
9 Stakeholder Satisfaction
10 Ease of implementation
Secondary Metric(s)
• Control unintended negative consequence (assures the Primary
Metric is not achieved artificially)
• May be used to measure project progress when the Primary Metric
responds slowly
• More than one may be required
• Plotted on a time series graph and shows the goal and actual
performance lines
8
Project Charter
Traditionally created by LSS Champion
Specifies details of a project including:
1. Scope
2. Responsibilities
3. Benefits
4. Schedule
5. Success criteria
A project charter template that may be adopted to fit
your organization is: Project Charter Template.
SIPOC
Supplier, Input, Process, Output, Customer diagrams
are used to:
1. Define the scope of the project
2. Identify key stakeholders
3. Gain a “30,000 foot” view of the process targeted
by the project
Tips:
4. The SIPOC is the first of several ways the
process will be documented. Therefore, it should
be at a relatively high level of abstraction.
5. It is a good way to assure agreement on the
scope of the project.
SIPOC Diagram – Questions to Answer
• Who are the customers of this process?
• What are their requirements?
• How are those requirements reflected in the
process parameters (output measures)?
• What are the process outputs?
• What are the process inputs that cause the
outputs?
• What controls are in place for the inputs?
• Who are the suppliers of the material for this
process?
• What are their requirements?
Purpose of Various Diagrams / Maps
• SIPOC diagrams provide a “forest view” of the
process – maintains focus on the customer’s
requirements.
• Value stream “trees level” describes the time, effort,
resources, and information used in the process – a
frequent source of early wins.
• Lay-out diagram (spaghetti diagram) documents
the distance an item travels during its production –
illustrates unnecessary movement.
• Process map “ground level” documents the inputs
and outputs of each step in the process – provides
the raw material for building a model of the
process.
The SIPOC Diagram – The Forest Level
• Start with the end in mind.
• Who are the customers of this process?
• What are their requirements?
• How are those requirements reflected in the
process parameters (output measures)?
• What are the process outputs?
• What are the process inputs that cause the
outputs?
• What controls are in place for the inputs?
• Who are the suppliers of the material for this
process?
• What are their requirements?
Sample SIPOC
Plant Availability
Suppliers Inputs Process Outputs Customers UI Earned
Coal Internal Plant Load factor
Coal Field Power
Water -Plant Mgmt Heat Rate
Rihand Dam Effluent
Suppliers
Air
Process Ash
-Corp Mgmt AUXILLIARY POWER
-
Power -Employee CONSUMPTION
Steam
Manpower Preferred Employer
CO2 External
Lubricants R&R
-Cent.Gov.
Maintenance Man : MW Ratio
-Ministry
Services Lead Time
-State Gov.
Spares and Manpower Utilization
-Shareholders
Consumables Quality System
-Contractors
Social Responsibility
-Suppliers
Maintenance Cost
-PAPs
Overhead Expenses
-Labour
Environment ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Boiler
DM Water Used
Turbine Safety aspect
COAL Generator Training of manpower
Cycle Time
AIR STEAM GRID In process idle stock
Air Emission quality
WATER Noise level
Collecting VoC
• Who is a customer?
• What does the customer need?
– Gathering the Voice of the Customer
– Define customer requirements
• How do the customers prioritize their needs?
• How are customer needs translated into CTQs?
Customer
– Requirements
– Opinions
Questions to Find Voice of the Customer
• What are the elements of your business that are
the most critical, from the perspective of your top
or best customers? What are their relevant
needs?
• What data has been collected to understand the
customer requirements?
• How do you operationally define the defect from
the perspective of the customer? Under what
conditions does it occur?
Voice of the Customer Concerns
– Interviews
– Focus groups
– Surveys
– Market research
Determining Customer Requirements
• Review customer verbatim comments and
comparative data
• If possible, probe for deeper understanding
• Convert into terms of process performance
• Describe the actual customer requirement
– Write the requirement, not the solution
– Use measurable terms
– Identify performance targets
– Be concise
Define Phase Review
• The purpose of the define phase is to identify and
launch a project.
• VOC should be reflected in the project charter
especially in the project success criteria.
• The Black Belt and Champion should review and
agree on the details of the project charter and
SIPOC.
• A common cause of project failure is poorly
defined or projects with excessive scope. This
review is an opportunity to mitigate that risk.
VOC ( Voice of Customer ) D M A I C
HOW ?
Improve Processes
Better Systems
Worse
Better
Same
CustomerNeed
Customer Needs
WHAT ?
Optional Attendees: Mr. P.K.Mohapatra Mr. N.N.Mishra Mr. N.K.Sinha Mr. S. Banerjee
VOC
( Voice of Customer )
The Seven QC Tools
Check sheet
Stratification
Pareto diagram
C &E Diagram
Histogram
Scatter diagram
Graphs and Charts
Area of Uses
Problem Solving
Continuous Improvement-- Kaizen
Dispersion Control-- Six Sigma
Waste Elimination--Lean
QMS, EMS, TS 16949, OHSAS-Process
control, C&P
Supplier Development
Project Management--Team working
What is their role ?
In problem solving
Role
Data Collection
What is Data ?
Quantitative Qualitative
• Measurable • Subjective assessment
e.g. :Length, e.g. :Score in a
Temperature beauty contest
• Countable
e.g. :Number of
defects
Population, Sample and Data
Action
Random
X
Measurement
Population Sample Data
Sampling / Observation
Action
A Saying
When you see the data, doubt it
When you see the measuring instrument, doubt
it.
When you see the chemical analysis, doubt it.
Three Categories
1 False Data
2 Mistaken Data
3 No Data available
How to Collect Data?
Define the purpose (Follow 5W 1H approach).
Define the period for data collection.
Define the Stratification.
Design the check sheet and assess Measurement
System Capability.
Purpose
Be Clear on What, Where, When, Why, Who and How
the data should be generated
STRATIFICATION
Stratification
Method of grouping data by Common
points or characteristics
Workers Material
Machines Time
Defect Environment
Product Region
Folder Files
Machine A Machine B
Machine A Machine B
N = 450
N = 450 N 450
= 450
D = 12
N=
D = 12
P% = 2.7 D =D 1118
= 118
P% = 2.7 P% = 26.2
P% = 26.2
COMBINED
N = 900
D = 130
P% = 14.4
Blister Defect
UCL
CL
Pinhole Defect
UCL
CL
All Defects
UCL
CL
CHECKSHEET
Check sheet
123456 A B C D………P Q R
Line Chart
Pie Chart
25
15 15
15 14
13 13
11 11 11
10 10
10 8
6
5
5 4
3 3
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Week Number
600 422
257
358
G
F 5%
E 3%
• A – Glass Broken 4%
D
• B - Stop 6%
• C - Mvt. Trouble A
43%
C
• D - Defective Dial 12%
• E - Regulation
• F - Stem Loose
• G - Others
B
27%
Control Chart
X- Bar and R Chart
2854
UCL=2853
Sample Mean
2849 Mean=2849
2844 LCL=2844
Subgroup 0 5 10 15 20 25
UCL=16.41
15
Sample Range
10
R=7.76
5
0 LCL=0
Radar Chart on ISO 9001-1994 Implementation
1
20 80 2
19 70 3
60
18 50 4
40
30
17 5
20
10
16 0 6 Series1
15 7
14 8
13 9
12 10
11
Gantt Chart for Construction Activity
Weeks
Type of work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Foundation work
Frame work
Dry-walling
Exterior touch up
Sheetrock work
Plumbing
Electrical wiring
Fit Fixtures
Paint interior wall
Interior touch up
Inspection delivery
Pareto Analysis of
No. of complaints
Cum Percentage
60
30
41.7 50
Customer Complaints 20
40
30
10 20
10
0 0
Fish not Vegetable Bread Cashier Meat not Eggs rotten
fresh wilted Stale Rude Fresh
Pareto Principle
74.7 80
40 70
Outstanding Value
Cum Percentage
60
51.7
30
50
40
20
30
10 20
10
0 0
E D C A B F H G O
Branches
Pareto Diagram for Production Stoppage
100
A. M/C quality change
45 90
B. Intermediate conveyor
C. Power failure
40 80
D. Hopper/duct line jamming
E. Dryer drum coupling pin 35 70
F. B P full press problem
G. Dryer preventive 30 60
No. of stoppages
Cumulative %
H. Nip roller
I. Rotary comb tripped 25 50
J. Comber jamming
K. Al conveyor idle roller
20 40
L. Fire
15 30
M. Accumulation
N. Drum seal changing 10 20
O. Fan tripping
P. Chain problem 5 10
Q. Fiber jamming
R. Zone gear box 0 0
S. Zone conveyor A B C D E F G H I J K L MN O P Q R S
Pareto Analysis of Complaints at a Laundry
160 75 80
140 70
60
No. of complaints
120 60
100 50
80 35 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
Late Missing or Fading Stains Creased Buttons Stretched
delivery wrong colours Missing or torn
items
Brain Storming
Defer evaluation
Fantasize freely
Generate quantity
Build on ideas
Defer Evaluation
Define problem
Gather members for discussion
Conduct Brainstorming
Group causes into 4M’s
Man, Material, Machine, Method
For each cause, ask, “What goes wrong
that produces the effect”.
Identify major causes
Cause and Effect Diagram for high petrol consumption
Spark plugs
Impatience Heavy Contacts
Poor Bad Life
Craze
anticipation attitude
Body Technical
Wrong Poor details
skill Shape
Always gears Fuel mix
late Lack of Inexperience Carburetor
Wrong High H.P
awareness
Riding on culture Engine
clutch
Cylinders High Petrol
Spurious Consumption
Crossings
Restrictions Spares Impurities
Traffic Incorrect
One way Tyres Inferior Octane no.
No turn
Frequent Faulty Petrol
Circuitous stops Negligence
Speed Breakers pressure Additives
Road
Ignorance
Potholes Irregular Incorrect viscosity
Low pressure
Poor servicing
Clogged
condition Oil
False filters
Steep economy Not changed
Low level
Road Maintenance Materials
Cause & Effect Diagram
PROCESS MATERIALS
PERSONNEL EQUIPMENTS
Uses of C & E Diagram
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
HISTOGRAM
Histogram
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Histogram Construction
Select a sample of min. 50
Record the measurements.
Determine the range.
Decide the no. of classes.
Divide range into no. of classes
Determine boundary or class limits.
Prepare frequency distribution.
Construct histogram (GRAPH).
Data on Metal Block thickness (in mm)
3.56 3.46 3.48 3.50 3.42 3.43 3.52 3.49 3.44 3.50
3.48 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.47 3.48 3.46 3.50 3.56 3.38
3.41 3.37 3.47 3.49 3.45 3.44 3.50 3.49 3.46 3.46
3.55 3.52 3.44 3.50 3.45 3.44 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.46
3.48 3.48 3.32 3.40 3.52 3.34 3.46 3.43 3.30 3.46
3.59 3.63 3.59 3.47 3.38 3.52 3.45 3.48 3.31 3.46
3.40 3.54 3.46 3.51 3.48 3.50 3.68 3.60 3.46 3.52
3.48 3.50 3.56 3.50 3.52 3.46 3.48 3.46 3.52 3.56
3.52 3.48 3.46 3.45 3.46 3.54 3.54 3.48 3.49 3.41
3.41 3.45 3.34 3.44 3.47 3.47 3.41 3.38 3.54 3.47
45
40 37
35 33
30
Frequency
25
20
15
9 10
10
5 3 3 3
1 1
0
3.3 3.35 3.4 3.45 3.5 3.55 3.6 3.65 3.7
Thickness (in mm)
Histogram for Bearing Thickness
45
41
40
35
31
30 29
Frequency
25 22
20 18 17
15 12
9
10
5
5 3
0
5.24 5.28 5.32 5.36 5.4 5.44 5.48 5.52 5.56 5.6
Thickness (in mm)
Histogram for Energy Consumption
30
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Types of Histograms
Bell shaped
Symmetrical shape with a peak in middle
representing a normal histogram
30
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
Skewed to Left & Right
Skewed to Left
Caused by centering the process toward high end of the
tolerance
Skewed to Right
Caused by centering the process toward low end of the
tolerance..
Bimodal & Truncated
After
Histogram Uses
Common Causes
---Chance Causes Of Variation
Special Causes
--- Assignable Cause Of Variation
Common Cause
Consists of combined effect of several sources of
uncontrollable variation inherent to a process.
25 24
20 19
17
Frequency
15
12
11
10 9
6
5 3
2
0
1.776 1.868 1.96 2.052 2.144 2.236 2.328 2.42 2.512
Consumption(KWh)
process variability process variability
Good Process Behavior
1050
1045
1040
Severed Length (mm)
1035
1030
1025
1020
1015
1010
1005
1000
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
Conveyor Speed (cm/sec)
Uses:
Control Purpose
Replacing a destructive test by a
non-destructive test
Study of Cause & Effect
relationship
Process Optimization
Process Mapping
About This Module…
\DataFile\ProcessT.ppt
Six Sigma, A Quest for Process Perfection
Attack Variation and Meet Goals
What We Will Learn …
1. The importance of process maps and the character of
the product and process parameters.
2. The when, why and where to use process maps.
3. The x’s & y’s and X’s & Y’s and Y=f(x,X).
Extending
ExtendingFlow
FlowCharts
Chartsto
toProcess
Process Mapping
Mapping
Process Management
Basic
Process
Model Resources
• People
• Equipment
System • Material
• Money
• Time
Feedback
Cycle Time
AAprocess
processmap
mapshould
shouldbe
be
AAprocess
processmapmapshould
shoulddescribe:
describe: reviewed
reviewedfrequently
frequentlyand
andisis
Major activities/tasks never
neverdone.
done.
Major activities/tasks
Sub processes
Sub processes AAprocess
processmap
mapshould
should
Process boundaries
Process boundaries document
documenthowhowthetheprocess
process
Inputs
Inputs actually
actuallyoperates,
operates,not
nothow
howitit
Outputs isissupposed
supposedto tooperate.
operate.
Outputs
Process & Product Parameters (“As
(“Asis,”
is,”not
not“To
“ToBe”)
Be”)
Process & Product Parameters
Customers & Suppliers
Customers & Suppliers AAprocess
processmap
mapwill
willidentify
identify
Process owners opportunities
Process owners opportunitiesfor
forquality
quality
improvements.
improvements.
Principles of Process Management
• Establish ownership.
• Verify and describe the purpose of the
process.
• Define the process, boundaries, and
interfaces.
• Organize and train the process
improvement team.
Principles of Process Management
Process - Level #2
Process - Level #3
Select
Selectthe
theappropriate
appropriateprocess
processlevel.
level.
Product and Process Parameters
y = f(x)
Remember the 6 M’s
Man (People)
Machine (Equipment)
Product Parameters, y’s
Method (Procedures)
KEY for (x’s)
Material Process Parameters
N Noise Parameters
Measurement C Controllable Process Parameters
S SOP Parameters
Mother Nature (Environment) CR Critical Parameters
Why List the Parameters?
Defects
TO REDUCE DEFECTS!
The x’s and X’s are the sources of variation in your
process.
Variation causes defects.
The x’s must be under control to prevent defects.
The root cause of a defect is variation of the x’s!
The y’s and Y’s are the measured results of the process
and include the failure modes of the process.
Defects are also outputs of a process step.
What Are We Measuring?
Measure the x’s, not the Y’s !
X’s _________
Inputs ?
x’s _________
Process Parameters
?
y’s _________
Process Step Outputs
?
Y’s _________
Process Outputs ?
We
Wecannot
cannot control
controlwhat
what we
wedon’t
don’t measure!
measure!
Is Workmanship an x?
X’s Y’s
6 M’s reminders:
Man (People)
Machine (Equipment) Product Parameters, y’s
Method (Procedures) DEFECT FREE OUTPUT
Material
Measurement
DEFECTS IN PROCESS OUTPUT
Mother Nature (Environment)
What Are the x’s and y’s?
X’s Y’s
Inputs Outputs
6 M’s reminders: Process Parameters, x’s
Man (People)
Machine (Equipment)
N y = f(x)
Method (Procedures) N
Material
N
Measurement
Mother Nature (Environment)
N Product Parameters, y’s
C
C
Machine (Equipment)
Operators manuals Method (Procedures)
Material
Work Instructions
Measurement
Operator experience Mother Nature (Environment)
Customer / supplier input
Engineering knowledge
Scientific theory
Completeness Checks
Inputs Step of the Process Outputs
Process Parameters, x’s y = f(x)
Are there y’s for every x in this step?
Product Parameters , y’s
Is there a “good” type of y for every x ? Good
Is there a “bad” type of y for every x ? Bad = Defects
Are x’s here that impact downstream y’s? Good Rejected = Defect
Does the map have input of extended team? Bad Accepted = Defect
Horror Stories: What has
happened in the past that
caused disasters?
Remember the 6 M’s
Success Stories: What
Man (People) outputs of this step thrilled
KEY for (x’s)
Process Parameters Machine (Equipment) the customer(s)?
N Noise Parameters
C Controllable Process Parameters
Method (Procedures) Are there x’s for each y in
S SOP Parameters
CR Critical Parameters
Material this step?
Measurement Are upstream x’s changing
Mother Nature (Environment) y’s of this step? How?
Wave Solder Process
INPUT LOAD IN LOAD ON FLUX
FLUX TO PREHEAT
FIXTURE CONVEYOR AIR KNIFE
Y’s
Temp - Zone 3 Solder Temp Position Workmanship Boards:
Temp - Zone 2
Temp -Zone 1
Temp - Zone 1 Ht of Pot/Position Dist to Stds REWORK • Accept
Temp - Zone 1
Temp - Zone 2 Temp - Zone 2
Solder Pot Angle board Samples ed
Temp -Zone 3 • Reject
Temp - Zone 3 Time in Preheat 3 Exit Point Temp Lighting
Time in Preheat 1 Time in Preheat 2 Angle Magnification ed
Amount of dross • Scrap
Resp time of Response time of Air Prod/Dmnd/Sch
SCRAP
Controllable Parameters:
How are they monitored?
How often are they verified?
Are optimum target values known?
How much variation is there around the target values?
How consistent are they?
Identify/classify
measurements
taken on product
& process
parameters
Continue to
update &
classify Classify/ Develop initial list Identify/classify
process map! characterize of process parameters upstream
process parameters along with current in-process
into 3 main factors operating conditions product parameters
Noise factors
Standard operating procedures
Controllable process parameters
Consider Every Process Step
1. What Process
feedback 5. What Customer
All work is a process
Requirements
All processes have 2. What Output
owners Specifications
All processes can be 3. What Input 4. Who are Customers – Function
described as a verb – Reliability
and noun – Format
All processes can be 6. Who are Cost
analyzed and Suppliers Schedule
improved
Process owner’s
feedback
requirements on the
7. What
supplier Supplier
Specifications Requirements
Cost
Schedule
8. Process Controls/Dependencies
Procedures/Policies Training/Education Equipment/Facilities Quality Attitudes
Any written Performance Space required Personal attitude
document that skills Processing which is less than
controls/impacts a Certifications equipment the requirement
process
Causes of Process Map Failure
CONCERN RESPONSE
Requires extra effort - “We know the Initial payoff is team understands
process - lets just move forward” process -- team members are not
working on different set of
assumptions. Use experts to help
you through the mapping process
The process map just seems to Think about approaching the problem
grow and grow and grow hierarchically
Process Mapping Summary
What
Whatisisthe
thetool?
tool? When
Whendodoyou
youapply
applythis
thistool?
tool?
Graphical method to illustrate the Always: to fully understand
Graphical method to illustrate the Always: to fully understand
details
detailsofofaaprocess
process process
process&&process
processflow
flow
Find where/when/how defects
Find where/when/how defects
What are
arebeing
beingcreated
Whatwill
willthe
thetool
toolidentify/show?
identify/show? created
All process steps, value-added & Define elements of cycle time
All process steps, value-added & Define elements of cycle time
non
nonvalue-added
value-added
Input parameters (X )
What
Whatresults
resultscan
canyou
youexpect?
expect?
Input parameters (Xi,ini,in) Systems needing MSE’s
End product parameters (Y ) Systems needing MSE’s
End product parameters (Yi ) List of Factors for DOE’s
i
List of Factors for DOE’s
In-process
In-processparameters
parameters(x’s (x’s&&y’s)
y’s) Find the hidden factory
Find the hidden factory
Characterization
Characterizationofofall
all Opportunities for process step
parameters Opportunities for process step
parameters elimination
elimination(i.e.
(i.e.flow
flow
Defect/data
Defect/datacollection
collectionpoints
points improvement)
improvement)
Steps
Stepsneeding
needingFMEA’s
FMEA’s Ways to re-layout the process
Ways to re-layout the process
Sources
Sourcesofofvariation
variationidentified
identified Sources of variation reduced
Sources of variation reduced
Map Your Process
For the next session:
• Map and characterize a critical part of your process.
• Identify:
– The Inputs (X’s)
– The Outputs (Y’s)
– The Process Parameters (x’s)
– The Product Parameters (y’s)
– The process owner, supplier, & customer
– Classify the parameters at each step
– The next step to reduce defects in your process
What We Have Learned …
1. The importance of process maps and the character of
the product and process parameters.
2. The when, why and where to use process maps.
3. The x’s & y’s and X’s & Y’s and Y=f(x,X).
Datafile/CopyFMEA.xls
Why Use FMEAs?
What is an FMEA?
Identify
critical product characteristics and process variables
Prioritize
product and process deficiencies in support of
downstream improvement actions
Help focus
on prevention of product and process problems
Benefits of FMEA’s
What is an FMEA?
Process - Level #2
Process - Level #3
Workbook in Excel
\DataFile\FMEAForm.xls
Cause -Failure Mode -Effect Continuum
What is an FMEA?
Effect (y’s)
Cause Failure
(x’s) Mode
The Cause and Effect Diagram Example
What is an FMEA?
Admin/Service Example First produced in 1950 by
Measurements Materials Manpower Professor Kaoru Ishikawa -
Also called the:
Ishikawa Diagram
Fish Bone Diagram
Measurement
Manpower Material
Reproducibility Repeatability
Inadequate Late
training Linearity
Wrong quantity
Stability
Lack of
experience Defective Calibration
Distractions
Defects
Too hot
Vague
Too humid
Not maintained Out of date
Datafile/Causeeffecte.igx
Copy Machine Example
What is an FMEA?
• Our process is copying
documents on a Xerox model
XC1045 copy machine.
• First we will construct a
process map
• Then we will construct a cause
and effect diagram
• Finally we will complete an
FMEA
Process: Making A Copy
What is an FMEA?
Document set Number of Size selected Darkness set Correct Copies Copies
correctly copies selected correctly directly paper tray Right number
Glass clean correctly selected Right contrast
Right
orientation
Right size
Right paper
Legend
C Controllable
Cr Critical
N Noise
P Procedure
x Input
Step 1: Identify “Heavy Hitter” Process Step
The FMEA Process
From the Process Map, identify the process step with
the most likelihood of having failure modes with
significant effects
Use defect data and/or team knowledge about failure
modes when selecting process steps
Significant impact to the business? (COPQ, cycle time,
fill rate, ...)
Use a Cause and Effect Diagram to capture
brainstorming results.
After completing FMEA Steps #2-7 for all failure modes
associated with this process step, return to this step and
select the next most likely “Heavy Hitter” process step
Not all process steps will need to be analyzed by the
FMEA
Step 2: Identify Associated y’s
The FMEA
Process
Materials Manpower
Measurement
Wrong Size Selected wrong
Wrong Paper orientation
Selected Size
Copy Misaligned
Too Humid Document Moved
When Lid was Alignment Marking
Closed Unclear
Mother Method
Nature Machine
occurrence and
detection.
9: Determine Actions/Plan
Based on the causes found, determine actions that
will minimize the effect of each cause, in priority
order.
Steps 10 and 11
The FMEA Process
10: Recalculate RPN Based on Plan
Assuming the actions are carried out successfully, reassign
severity, occurrence and detectability.
Place these new ratings in the “predicted” columns (ps, po & pd).
Assign a rating from 1 to 5 for each action that will show the “risk”
associated with each action (5 being the greatest risk). Place the
rating in the “risk” column.
Step 10
Step 3 Step 25 60
6
ID Failure Modes 5 Step 7 & 8 Key Opr 1/15
Process FMEA
Types of FMEA
• Helps analyze manufacturing and assembly
processes to reduce the occurrence and
improve detection of defects.
• Assists in the development of process control
plans.
• Establishes a priority for improvement activities.
• Documents the rationale behind process
changes and helps guide future process
improvement plans.
• IS PROACTIVE! Should be started when new
processes are designed or when old processes
are changed.
Process FMEA Scoring Definition
Types of FMEA
Score SEVERITY CRITERIA OCCURRENCE DETECTION
10 Hazardous Without Warning 1 in 2 Very High Absolute Uncertainty
9 Hazardous With Warning 1 in 3 Very High Very Remote
8 Very High 1 in 8 High Remote
7 High 1 in 20 High Very Low
6 Moderate 1 in 80 Moderate Low
5 Low 1
1 in
in 400 Moderate Moderate
4 Very Low 2,000
1 in Moderate Moderately High
3 Minor 15,000
1 in Low High
2 Very Minor 150,000
£1 in Low Very High
1 None 1,500,00 Remote Almost Certain
Note: When completing a Process FMEA, first assume the material is good and
the process is bad. Then assume that the process is good and the material is
bad. Lastly, review the process for safety considerations.
Design/Product FMEA
Types of FMEA
• Helps to identify potential product failure
modes early in the product development cycle.
• Increases the likelihood that all potential failure
modes and their effects on assemblies will be
considered.
• Assists in evaluating product design
requirements and test methods.
• Establishes a priority for design improvement.
• Documents the rationale behind design
changes and helps guide future development
projects.
• IS PROACTIVE! Should be done when new
products are designed or existing products are
changed.
Defect FMEA
Types of FMEA
Correct
angle Ball flys Accurate Correct
straight measurement distance
± 2 inches recorded
Datafile/Catapultflow.igx
Complete the Diagram Below
FMEA
Exercise
Men
Method Material
Rubber Band Release consistency
Calculation procedure Angle measurement
Ball
Distance
Reproducibility
Mother nature
Machine Measure
Datafile/CatapultC&E.IGX
When To Update an FMEA?
FMEA Summary
An FMEA should be updated whenever a change is being
considered to a product’s:
design
application
environment
material
product’s manufacturing or assembly process
Summary of Product/Process FMEA’s
FMEA
Summary
What is the tool? When do you apply this tool?
– Spreadsheet – When evaluating product for
robustness (functionality,
What will the tool produceability, reliability)
– During early stages of defect reduction
identify/show?
– All product/process failure efforts to identify causes
– When identifying key process/product
modes, related effects,
causes, & methods of parameters and evaluating methods
controlling them for controlling them
– Risk Priority Number (RPN)
for action based on failure What results can you expect?
severity, probability of – Learn to identify critical product/
occurrence and detection process parameters
capability – Achieve consensus on solutions and
– Actions/plans to reduce methods of implementation
elements of RPN – Detailed product/process
understanding
Keys to Success
FMEA
Summary
Identify purpose...BE SPECIFIC!
Encourage creativity...TEAMWORK!
PLAN!
ASK QUESTIONS!
Process FMEA Steps
What is an FMEA?
Steps Completed Prior to FMEA:
– Charter Team
– Develop and Characterize Process Map
FMEA Steps:
1. Identify “Heavy Hitter” Process Step
2. Identify Associated y’s (Product Parameters)
3. Identify Failure Mode
4. Identify Failure Effects/Rate Severity
5. Identify Causes/Rate Occurrence
6. Identify Controls (if any)/Rate Detection
7. Calculate RPN
8. Prioritize by RPN Order
9. Determine Actions/Plan
10. Recalculate RPN Based on Plan
11. Take Action
FMEA Appendix
Key Definitions for FMEA
Severity is an assessment of how serious the effect of the potential failure mode is on the customer.
The customer in this case could be the next operation, subsequent operations, or the end user.
Occurrence is an assessment of the likelihood that a particular cause will happen and result in the
failure mode.
Detection is an assessment of the likelihood that the current controls (design and process) will detect
the cause of the failure mode, should it occur, thus preventing it from reaching your customer.
The customer in this case could be the next operation, subsequent operations, or the end user.
Current Controls (for both design and process) are the mechanisms which prevent the cause of the
failure mode from occurring, or detect the failure mode, should it occur, before the product
reaches your “customer.” For example, current controls include SPC, inspections, written
procedures, training, preventive maintenance and all other activities that ensure a smooth
running process.
Critical Characteristics are those items which affect customer safety and/or could result in non-
compliance to regulations and thus require controls to ensure 100% compliance. These are
usually process“settings” such as temperature, time, speed, etc.
Significant Characteristics are those items which require SPC and quality planning to ensure
acceptable levels of capability.
FMEA Appendix
Terminology
A. Process or Product Name – Description of Process or Product being analyzed.
B. Responsible – Name of Process Owner.
C. Prepared By - Name of Agent coordinating FMEA study.
D. FMEA Date – Dates of Initial and subsequent FMEA Revisions.
E. Process Step/Part Number – Description of individual item being analyzed.
F. Potential Failure Mode – Description of how the process could potentially fail to meet the
process requirements and/or design intent, i.e. a description of a non-conformance at that
G. Potential Failure Effects – Description of the effects of the Failure Mode upon the customer,
i.e. what the next user of the process or product would experience or notice.
H. SEV (Severity) – An assessment of the seriousness of the effect of the potential failure mode
I. Potential Causes – Description of how the failure could occur, described in terms of something
J. OCC (Occurrence) – Description of how frequently the specific failure cause is expected to
K. Current Controls – Description of process controls that either prevent, to the extent possible,
L. DET (Detection) – An assessment of the probability that the current controls will detect the
potential cause, or the subsequent failure mode.
M. RPN (Risk Priority Number) – The product of the Severity, Occurrence, and Detection
Rankings i.e., RPN = SEV * OCC * DET.
N. Actions Recommended – Actions to reduce any or all of the Occurrence, Severity or Detection
rankings.
O. Responsibility – Person or group responsible for the Recommended Action.
P. Actions Taken – Brief description of actual action and effective date.
Q. New SEVERITY Rating after corrective action.
R. New OCCURENCE Rating after corrective action.
S. New DETECTION Rating after corrective action.
T. Resulting new RPN after corrective action.
Introduction to Process Capability
About this Module
• Process capability enables the prediction of the
ability of any process to produce products and
services that meet their desired specifications.
• This module focuses on typical manufacturing
processes. Transactional and other
manufacturing processes are not discussed here.
• The principles of process capability will be
introduced and Minitab will be used to calculate
process capabilities.
Learning Objectives
At the conclusion of this module participants
will be able to:
1. Recognize the value of and uses for process
capability.
2. Calculate and explain the capability of
processes whose output is normally
distributed.
3. Predict the probability that the output of a
process will be within its specification limits.
We Live in a Statistical World
Basic Statistics
• Statistics have a pervasive influence on
our lives
– Every day there is another poll
– Sampling is being used to perform many
aspects of the census
– All major economic indicators are based on
samples
– TV ratings are based on samples
– Statistics determine insurance rates
• Quantum physics has demonstrated that
probability determines the structure and
Types of Statistics
Definitions
Descriptive statistics
is the process of describing the information we have.
We summarize information from a sample or
population give a clear understanding, or description,
of the data.
Inferential statistics
is the process of using information from a smaller set
of data (sample) to reach conclusions or inferences
about a larger group (population). Usually, we have
only sample information, not the entire population, and
must infer understanding of the population based on
our sample. We want these conclusions to be
mathematically correct.
Data Types
Attribute
Definitions
Yes - no
Good - bad
Accept - reject
Discrete
Multiples of whole units
Can not be meaningfully divided
Count or classification
Continuous
Can be meaningfully divided into finer and finer
increments of precision weight, length, voltage,
time
Measures of Central Tendency - Location
Definitions
X = Sample mean N
Population Samples
Size N n
Location Average (Mean) m x
Dispersion: Variation
Variance s2 s2
Std dev s s
Range R = XHi-XLo
x1 xn
X
x2
ˆ X
12 Maximum = 95
F
r 10 X i1
i
e
q 8
u n
e 6
n Variable X measurements:
c 4
y 75 80 75 65 70
2 85 70 70 85 70
60 80 80 80 65
0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
80 75 75 70 85
70 75 75 75 85
Values of X 80 55 70 70 85
65 70 80 75 65
75 85 90 80 65
70 75 75 80 80
75 95 90 60 65
Measures of Variability - Variance =
Sigma Squared
Definitions
Sigma Squared is a measure of dispersion of the
population about the mean
Variances are not in the units of interest; standard
deviations are in the units of interest
Variances are additive; standard deviations are not
additive...
…so s12 + s22 + s 32 is OK,
but, s 1 + s2 + s 3 is NOT OK
Measures of Variability – S. D. = Sigma
Definitions
Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion of the
population about the mean
= the units of interest and is population standard
deviation
m = population mean
N = total population
s = estimate of standard deviation2
(
X1 - m
n = sample size
2
) (
+ X2 - m ) (
+ X3 -m
2
) (
... X N - m ) 2
s(X)=
N
(X ) +(X
-X
2
) +(X
-X
2
) ...(X
-X
2
)
-X
2
̂ = s = 1 2 3 n
n-1
Normal Distribution
Each curve shown here has: Therefore, the same % of
An area of one the population is under each
A mean of zero of the curves for n about
A standard deviation of the mean.
Quantifying the Normal Distribution
Definitions
X
Z
Permits conversion of any data point (X) into a Z
value. This value allows us to look up the percentage
of the population that is above and below the data
point.
Sample Questions………
Q. A new iron ore mine is discovered. 10 Kg ore is
collected from each of 20 spots.
a. This procedure is called as __________ .
b. Average is calculated from iron content of each of 20
spots. This value is called as ________________
c. If we calculate average, range and standard deviation
from the iron content values of each lot, this data is
called as ________________ .
d. Predictions are made regarding average iron content
of the mine, total iron that can be extracted, impurities
present etc. the analysis is called as ___________ .
e. The above calculations will give answers which will be
100% correct. True / False
Answers
a. The procedure is called as SAMPLING.
LSL USL
Visualizing Process Capability
Process width
Specification
width
Quantifying Process Capability
Yield of a one sigma process 0.683 If we assume the
process is centered
on the target and
does not shift or drift
the yields would be.
m s= S (X – X)2
1 Sigma - 68%
2 Sigma - 95% n
3 Sigma - 99.73 %
1s p(d)
operation?
x
Z = (650 – 500) / 100 = 1.5
x
Z
= (700 – 500) / 100 = 2
Looking up z table, the corresponding value under the
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1
Calculating Shifted Process
Yield
USL-X Using tables or software to look up the
ZUSL =
σ̂ area under the curve when Z=-.5 we
1-0-1.5 find .3085
ZUSL = .5
1
LSL-X Again using tables or software to look
ZLSL =
σ̂ up the area under the curve when Z=-
-1-0-1.5
ZLSL = 2.5 2.5 we find .0062.
1
Subtracting the two we obtain .3023
Using These Principles
addressed first.
80
Percent
50 The P value is
20 > .05 therefore
5 do not reject the
1 assumption of
normality.
0.01
0.992 0.994 0.996 0.998 1.000 1.002 1.004 1.006 1.008
Caps
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
Using Minitab to Calculate Process
Capability
Minitab Results
Process Capability of Caps
LSL
Process Data
0.995 Calculated Within
Overall
Target
USL
1
1.005 directly
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 from the Z.Bench 2.26
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 Z.LSL 2.55
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 data. The Z.USL
Cpk
2.49
0.83
within Overall Capability
Z.Bench 2.26
standard Z.LSL 2.55
Z.USL 2.48
deviation is Ppk 0.83
Cpm 0.84
the pooled
45 960 975 990 005 020 035 050
9 9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0
0. 0. 0. standard
0. 1. 1. 1. 1.
Observed Performance
% < LSL 0.40
Exp. Within Performance
% < LSL 0.54
deviation% < LSL
of
Exp. Overall Performance
0.54
1.18 the
% > USL 0.67 % > USL 0.64 % > USL 0.65
% Total 1.07 % Total % Total 1.19
subgroups.
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
Observed Performance
Process Capability of Caps
LSL TheTarget
percent USL
Process Data
Within
LSL 0.995 of product
Target 1 Overall
USL
Sample Mean
1.005
1.00006
that was Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N
StDev(Within)
750
0.00198431
outside of Z.Bench
Z.LSL
2.26
2.55
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636
the upper Z.USL
Cpk
2.49
0.83
LSL
Process Data
outside 0.995 of the Within
Target 1 Overall
USL upper 1.005 and
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample Nlower 750 Z.Bench 2.26
Z.LSL 2.55
specification
StDev(Within)
StDev(Overall)
0.00198431
0.00198636 Z.USL 2.49
the process
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
mean.
Potential Within Capability
Process Capability of Caps
Z USL and Z LSL are
LSL Target USL
calculated
Process Data using the Within
LSL
process
Target
0.995
1 mean, the Overall
USL 1.005
respective
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
Sample N 750 Z.Bench 2.26
specification
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 limits and Z.LSL
Z.USL
2.55
2.49
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636
the within standard Cpk 0.83
Overall Capability
deviation. Z.Bench 2.26
Z.LSL 2.55
Z bench is calculated by Z.USL 2.48
Ppk 0.83
putting the projected Cpm 0.84
hand
Observed tail of
Performance a standard
Exp. Within Performance Exp. Overall Performance Note: Minitab uses
% < LSL 0.40 % < LSL 0.54 % < LSL 0.54
%normal
> USL 0.67 then % >looking
USL 0.64 up% > USL 0.65 within to describe short
% Total 1.07 % Total 1.18 % Total 1.19
the respective Z score. term variation and
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW
Cpk is calculated 1/3 of overall to describe long
the lesser of Z USL or Z term variation.
LSL.
Overall Capability
Process Capability of Caps
Z USL and Z LSL are
calculated
Process Data
using LSL the Target USL
LSL process
Within
Target
0.995
1
mean, the Overall
USL
respective
Sample Mean
1.005
1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
specification
Sample N
StDev(Within)
750
0.00198431
limits and Z.Bench
Z.LSL
2.26
2.55
the overall
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636
standard Z.USL
Cpk
2.49
0.83
the respective
% Total 1.07 % Total
Z1.18score.% Total 1.19
Ppk is calculated
Worksheet: Bottle Caps.MTW as 1/3
of the lesser of Z USL or
Z LSL.
Within - Between
Process Capability of Caps
LSL respective
Within
0.995 specification
Target 1 Overall
USLlimits 1.005 and the within
Sample Mean 1.00006 Potential (Within) Capability
standard
Sample N 750 deviation. Cp 0.84
StDev(Within) 0.00198431 CPL 0.85
Cp is calculated
StDev(Overall) 0.00198636 by CPU 0.83
Cpk 0.83
putting the projected Overall Capability
80
Percent
50
20
Do not
5
reject the
1
assumption
0.01 of normality.
0.9950 0.9975 1.0000 1.0025 1.0050
Caps Drift
Worksheet: Caps Drift.MTW
Capability Analysis
Capability Analysis
Process Capability of Caps Drift
1 ± .06 Inches
Process average
Design width
(.12 Inches)
80
Percent
50
20
5
1
0.01
Probability Plot of Part B
9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.2 Normal
Part A
99.99
Worksheet: Process Capability Exercise 1.MTW Mean 10.00
StDev 0.05647
N 750
99 AD 0.248
95 P-Value 0.752
80
No reason to reject the Percent
50
assumption of 20
part. 0.01
9.8 9.9 10.0 10.1 10.2
Part B
Worksheet: Process Capability Exercise 1.MTW
Exercise 2 Process Capabilities
Exercise 2 Part A Process
Capability
Process Capability of Part A
_
_
10.00 X=10.0009
9.95
LCL=9.9343
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
UCL=0.2441
0.2
Sample Range
4 _
R=0.1154
0.1 44
4
0.0 LCL=0
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
_
_
10.00 X=9.9996
9.95
5 5 LCL=9.9330
1 1
9.90 1 1 1
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
UCL=0.2441
0.2
Sample Range
4 _
R=0.1154
0.1 44
4
0.0 LCL=0
1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136
Sample
\DataFile\PurchOrd.mtw
\DataFile\PwrSuply.mtw
\DataFile\Conf-Int.mtw
\DataFile\OEack.mtw
What We Will Learn...
How
Population representative is
this sample?
Sample
Confidence Interval
Symbols and Definitions
Measure Population Sample
Use
Parameter Statistic
Z æçèn ³30ö÷ø
s is known
Mean m X
t æçèn <30ö÷ø
Variance s2 s2 c2
Standard
s s c2
Deviation
Process ^
Capability
Cp Cp c2
^ F or
Proportion p p Z (approx)
a Typically
Alpha Risk
.05
Confidence Intervals (CI)
CI take the general form :
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
5
5
-4
-3
4
-2
-1
1.
2.
.
0.
3.
-1
-3
-2
-0
We can use Z to
estimate t if
n ³ 30
and s is known
STATISTICS FOR
EXPERIMENTERS-- BHH
Hypothesis Testing
About This Module…
Design:
Determine if two alternate design
changes are significantly different.
Manufacturing:
Determine if two different types of
material wear differently.
Administrative/Transactional / Service:
Determine if the change to a process
affected the cycle time.
Purposes of Hypothesis Testing
Action
Ho not rejected Ho rejected
State of Nature
Ho should not Type I or
Correct
be rejected producer’s risk
(Ho is true) Decision
a = P(Type I)
Ho should Type II or
Correct
be rejected consumer’s risk
Decision
(Ho is false) b = P(Type II)
Another Look at Risks
Remember:
a is the risk of finding a difference when there really isn’t one.
b is the risk of not finding a difference when there really is one.
Ho Ha
b a
ADMINISTRATIVE
MANUFACTURING
DESIGN
Correlation = 1 Correlation = - 1
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Correlation = 0
Correlation Example
\DataFile\Correlat.mtw
Two test stations are used to measure power supply
voltage.
Is there a correlation?
Minitab: Stat>basic stat>correlation
Correlation of Station 1 and Station 2 = 0.959, P-Value = 0.000
Is this reasonable?
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.0
were on the diagonal
line, would8.9we have
8.8
perfect correlation?
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6
Station 2
Worksheet: Correlat.MTW
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7
What are the
8.6 implications?
8.6 8.8 9.0 9.2 9.4 9.6
Station 2
Worksheet: Correlat.MTW
What action
Slide 225 was actual line – this is a would you
fitted line. Can be used for prediction. take?
Best Fit Line
Fitted Line Plot
Cases = 22.47 + 0.7546 Test Piece
100 S 11.5131
90
R-Sq
R-Sq(adj)
49.4%
47.7% By minimizing the
80
residual sum of
squares, we get a
Cases
70
60
best fit line of the
50
form:
40
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Yi a bX i
Test Piece
Worksheet: cases.MTW
\DataFile\Attribut mtw
\DataFile\Variable.mtw
What We Will Learn.
2) Monitor a process
Sw = standard deviation of w
Centerline = X
LCL X 3S w
Lower Control Limit
Discrete Variable
X Bar and R
Fixed or Variable Fixed Fixed or Variable IMR Chart
Fixed or
variable variable
X Bar and S
opportunity? opportunity?
Supplement
with EWMA if
CTQ is
P Chart
C Chart U Chart NP Chart sensitive to
small process
shifts
X and R Control Chart
Formulae & Constants
X Control Limits =X ± A 2 R
R Upper Control Limit = D 4 R
R Lower Control Limit = D 3 R
Sam ple A2 D3 D4 d2
Size
2 1.880 - 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 - 2.574 1.693
4 .729 - 2.282 2.059
5 .577 - 2.114 2.326
6 .483 - 2.004 2.534
7 .419 .076 1.924 2.704
8 .373 .136 1.864 2.847
9 .337 .184 1.816 2.970
10 .308 .223 1.777 3.078
Creating Control Charts for
Variables
\DataFile\Variable.mtw
Creating an X-bar and R Chart
An X-Bar and R Chart
Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
1 1
1
5 UCL=41.294
41
Sample Mean
_
_
40 X=40.000
6
39 6
LCL=38.706
1
1 1
38
1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Sample
UCL=4.743
4.5
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.243
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
TEST 5. 2 out of 3 points more than 2 standard deviations from center line (on
one side of CL).
Test Failed at points: 10, 17, 47
TEST 6. 4 out of 5 points more than 1 standard deviation from center line (on
one side of CL).
Test Failed at points: 7, 32, 34
* WARNING * If graph is updated with new data, the results above may no
* longer be correct.
StatGuide Interprets the Tests
Comparing the Suppliers
Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5 Xbar-R Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
42 1 1
UCL=41.207 1
41 5 UCL=41.384
Sample Mean
5
Sample Mean
_
_
_
40 X=39.894 40 X=40.106
6
5 5 LCL=38.829
39 1
LCL=38.580 38 1
1 1
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Sample Sample
UCL=4.816 UCL=4.683
Sample Range
Sample Range
4 4
_ _
2 R=2.278 2 R=2.214
0 LCL=0 0 LCL=0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Sample Sample
11 2 2 _
_
X=10.568
10
6
6 6
LCL=9.286
9
7/31/2006 8/4/2006 8/10/2006 8/16/2006 8/22/2006 8/28/2006 9/1/2006 9/7/2006 9/13/2006 9/19/2006
Date
4.5 UCL=4.699
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.222
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
7/31/2006 8/4/2006 8/10/2006 8/16/2006 8/22/2006 8/28/2006 9/1/2006 9/7/2006 9/13/2006 9/19/2006
Date
10 6
6 6
LCL=9.286
9
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
4.5 UCL=4.699
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.222
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
The tests detect the process shift but it would have been
detected earlier if the control limits had been based on the
first 20 data points.
Detecting Gradual Process Drift
Minitab calculates control limits based on the entire data set be default.
Freezing control limits detects shifts earlier than using the entire data set
to calculate limits.
Xbar-R Chart of Stacked Data 1s
12
1 1
2 2
2 2 2 UCL=11.360
5 6 2 2
2
11 6 2 2
Sample Mean
2
6
_
_
10 X=10.112
9
LCL=8.864
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
4.5 UCL=4.575
Sample Range
3.0
_
R=2.164
1.5
0.0 LCL=0
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Sample
Worksheet: Variable.MTW
Rational Subgrouping
• Usually consecutive units
• Must come from a single distinct population
• Within subgroup, variation should be white noise only
• Between subgroups should capture variation due to black noise
Car built on blocks as workers walked around
Built by craftsmen with pride
Components hand-crafted, hand-fitted
Excellent quality
Very expensive
Few produced
Mass
Manufacturing
• Assembly line - Henry Ford 1920s
Low skilled labor, simplistic jobs, no pride in work
Interchangeable parts
Lower quality
Affordably priced for the average family
Billions produced – identical
Model ‘T’
Lean History – Japan
• Sakichi Toyoda at his textile mills (20’s–30’s)
• Toyota Motor Company’s Kiichiro Toyoda and
Taiichi Ohno made innovations (40’s) in
assembly lines that provided efficient,
customer-focused, streamlined processes
with flow, variety, and short lead time—Toyota
Production System (TPS); to face competition
of GM and Ford after WWII when key need
was flexibility.
• Taiichi Ohno and Shigeo Shingo developed
Lean based on TPS
Lean Manufacturing
Cells or flexible assembly lines
Broader jobs, highly skilled workers, proud of
product
Interchangeable parts, even more variety
Excellent quality mandatory
Costs being decreased through process
improvement
Global markets and competition.
What is Lean?
“Anything
“Anything that
that adds
adds Cost
Cost
to
to the
the product
product
without
without adding
adding Value”
Value”
Toyota Way – the 14 Principles
by Jeffrey K. Liker
1. Base management decisions on long-term philosophy, even
at expense of short-term financial goals.
2. Create continuous process flow to bring problems to surface.
3. Use pull systems to avoid overproduction.
4. Level out workload (heijunka); work like a tortoise, not a hare.
5. Build culture of stopping to fix problems, to get quality right
first time.
6. Standardized tasks are the foundation for continuous
improvement and employee empowerment.
7. Use visual controls so no problems are hidden.
8. Use only reliable, thoroughly tested technology that serves
people and processes.
Toyota Way - 14 Principles
(cont.)
9. Grow leaders who thoroughly understand work, live
philosophy, and teach others.
10. Develop exceptional people and teams that follow company’s
philosophy.
11. Respect extended network of partners and suppliers by
challenging them and helping them improve.
12. Go and see to thoroughly understand situation (genchi
genbutsu).
13. Make decisions slowly by consensus, thoroughly considering
all options; implement decisions rapidly.
14. Become a learning organization through relentless reflection
(hansei) and continuous improvement (kaizen).
372
Liker Model
Toyota Terms
Genchi
Genbutsu
Problem
Solving
Kaizen
Respect and
People and Partners Teamwork
Process
Challenge
Philosophy
373
Liker Model - 4 Ps
1. Philosophy
• Long-term thinking even at expense of short-term financial
goals
2. Process
• Eliminate waste by focusing on flow, pull, workload
balance, error reduction, standardization, visual controls,
and jidoka or use of reliable, tested technology/automation
with mistake proofing and human touch
3. People and Partners
• Respect, develop, and challenge people
4. Problem Solving
• Fix and prevent problems by continual learning, going to
place where problem occurs, getting hands dirty, and
making good decisions based on fact
374
What Is Lean?
Lean is a methodology
• that allows organizations to drastically improve
bottom line
• by improving processes and monitoring everyday
business activities to reduce errors
• in ways that increase value and minimize work, non-
value-add tasks, and waste while increasing
customer satisfaction
- Based on idea that faster processes yield less waste,
less cost, less work in process, less complexity,
higher quality, and happier customers
Womack and Jones Model
5. Continuously improve
Lean Principles
• Create value for customer
• Understand:
– Who is customer – person or entity who is
recipient of product or service; one who places
value on output; catalyst/trigger in value chain
• Another business
• Someone inside own business
• Specific individual, group, or team
• Consumers—ultimate customer
– What customer considers valuable
• Make value flow based on customer’s needs
Lean Principles (cont.)
• Consider life cycle of information, materials,
processes, products, and services
• Look for process problems that prevent people
from performing best work
• Eliminate waste
– Non-value-add steps
– WIP
– Cost
• Standardize work
• Do not become distracted by other stakeholders
Value-Add Quiz
In which category should the following be
placed?
Activity Value Add Type 1 Type 2
Attending weekly team coordination meeting
Filtering through daily e-mail list
Reporting status to upper management
Gaining multiple approvals on documents
Gaining management approval for routine actions
Expediting document through approval list
Writing formal policies and procedures
Writing brief work-method instructions
Gaining regulatory or agency approvals
Creating ISO 9000 documentation
Hunting for needed information to do your job
Building “best practices” database
Holding lessons learned meeting
Spending time on process improvements
Lean vs. Traditional
Lean
Traditional
• Complex
Simple and visual signals
• Demand driven
Forecast driven
• Inventory as
Excessive inventory
needed
• Reduceup
Speed non-value
value-added
added
work
• Small lot
Batch production
size
• Minimal
Long lead
lead
timetime
• Quality built
Inspected-in
• Value stream
Functional departments
managers
Benefits of Lean Manufacturing
3 hours
Cans Sheet Rolled Plate
5
Continuous Improvement 2
Sustain Organize/Straighten
Discipline A place for
Waste
everything
3
4 Clean/Sweep
Maintain/Standardize Housekeeping /
Establish standards Inspection
Workplace Scan
“Understand your Current State”
• Start with a workplace Scan
• Team Based Workplace Scan Display
Area Checklist
• Define the boundaries Details Score
– Standard Work
– TPM
Point-Of-Use Storage
• Does the
carpenter walk
back to the
toolbox every
time a tool is
needed?
• Which waste is
this?
• What does the
carpenter do?
Proximity
• Typically, up to 60% of time is spent on
finding/collecting items needed.
• Minimize non-value activities
• Store as close as possible and within reach
• Layout and workstation design should
accommodate required materials
• Try to use the packaging from the supplier
or have the supplier change packaging
POUS Components
• Have the:
– Information
• Use horizontal
transfers and
gravity feeds when
possible
• Support heavy
objects
• Set items
ergonomically
Benefits
Blocks
transportation waste
Benefits of 5S
• Improved equipment reliability
• Superior quality
• Increased productivity
• Better workflow
• Enhanced Safety
• Reduced inventory
• More pleasant place to work
• Impress customers
Video
• Introduction to 5S
Building Blocks of Lean
around
do your job
Andon Lights
Display Panels
Range Markings
On Gauges
Shadow Boards
Standard Work
• Specific
• Measurable
• Repeatable
• Documented
Standard Work
Identifies value added versus non-value added
activities
• Reduce or eliminate non-value added activities
• Convert Internal Time to External Time,
wherever possible
• Continuous Improvement: once Standard Work
is established as a base and displayed at
workstations, operators monitor and implement
improvements
• Use as a training tool for new employees
• Created by input from the people who actually
work in the process
Philosophy of Standard Work
organization’s needs
Process Capacity Table
Times for: Changeover Analisys Chart
NVA = X
• Elapsed time Seq
No. Element Symbol
Elapsed Element Internal External
Time Time Time Time Comments
1 Review work order for die number and material 600 600 300 Convert to External
• Element time 2
3
Locate the die
Locate material
1800
3000
1200
1200
300 Convert to External
300 Convert to External
4 Get tools 3600 600 300 Convert to External
• Internal Time 5
6
Tagout machine
Loosen bolts
4500
4980
900
480
60
60
Prepare Tags before
Use quick connects
7 Disconnect hoses 5280 300 60 Use quick connects
• External Time 8 Remove die from press 5580 300 120 Position die cart
9 Return die to Tool Room 6180 600 300 Convert to External
• Manual Time 10
11
Load die into press
Align die
6480
6960
300
480
90 Use positive stops
0 Eliminate X
12 Tighten bolts 7440 480 60 Use quick connects
Step Identification 13
14
Connect hoses
Position material
7740
8340
300
600
60 Use quick connects
300 Convert to External
15 Clear tagout 8940 600 60
• Transportation 16 Make sample piece 9000 60 60
17 Take first piece sample to QC 9600 600 120 Have QC Tech ready
• Process 18
19
Adjust die and press
Make sample piece
10800
10860
1200
60
0 Pre-adjust die
0 Eliminate
X
X
20 Return tools 11460 600 600 Convert to External
• Inspection Transport Process Inspection Storage Total Time 11460 750 2400 Page ____ of _____
• Storage
Use to identify bottlenecks Use to calculate the capacity of
machines, and identify bottlenecks
Work Combination Sheet
Sequence of: Product Fam ily: B - Generators Tim e Available: 24,600 seconds Date: January 31, 200X
12
Machine
Operation Operation
32
Walking
0 1 44
Start
0 0
Manual Operation
12
Machine Operation
32
Walking
0
operations time
2 Start WC-1, go to WC-2 3 0 2 2 5 44 49 3 0 2
3 Unload part, Load Part, Start Machine, go to WC-3 1 16 2 3 19 49 68 1 16 2
4 Unload part, file corner, inspect to print 45 120 0 4 165 68 233 45 120 0
5 Load next part, start machine, go to WC-1 2 15 3 5 20 233 253 2 15 3
• Walking 6
7
8
Fasten parts A-1, and B-1 together, go to AS-2
Fasten Housing and Base
Package generator
23
42
35
41
0
0
2
0
0
6
7
8
66
42
35
253
319
361
319
361
396
23
42
35
41
0
0
2
0
0
9 Load on cart 5 0 4 9 9 396 405 5 0 4
10 0 0 0 10 0 405 405 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 11 0 405 405 0 0 0
12 0 0 0 12 0 405 405 0 0 0
Shows the
13 0 0 0 13 0 405 405 0 0 0
14 0 0 0 14 0 405 405 0 0 0
15 0 0 0 15 0 405 405 0 0 0
16
interactions
16 0 0 0 0 405 405 0 0 0
17 0 0 0 17 0 405 405 0 0 0
18 0 0 0 18 0 405 405 0 0 0
19 0 0 0 19 0 405 405 0 0 0
between machines 20
21
22
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
20
21
22
0
0
0
405
405
405
405
405
405
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
and operators 23
24
25
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
23
24
25
26
0
0
0
405
405
405
405
405
405
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26 0 0 0 0 405 405 0 0 0
27 0 0 0 27 0 405 405 0 0 0
28 0 0 0 28 0 405 405 0 0 0
29 0 0 0 29 0 405 405 0 0 0
Allows to recalculate
30 0 0 0 30 0 405 405 0 0 0
Total Time: 168 224 13 0 100 200 300 400 500
Percent Operator Time: 41% 55% 3%
Time
Seconds
PCS
405
Rate
Total Time (Cyclical + Non-cyclical):
Throughput per shift = Available Time / Total Operating Time:
405
content as takt 1
2
3
Work Flow Diagram
WC-1 WC-2 WC-3
time changes 4
5
Total Non-cyclic Time:
AS-1 AS-1
AS-1
Standard Work Sheet
Product Family
• Machine B - Generators
Process
WC-1 WC-2
• Tools
Assembly Cell #23
Description
1 3 2
Final Assembly
• Layout
WC-3
Supplier
• Material location
Customer
SM-FG48, Shipping
2
(Standard stock) 2 1
-1
AS
FS-1
AS-2
Displayed at Workstations
Adobe Acrobat
Adobe Acrobat Adobe Acrobat
Document
Document Document
Standard Work and Training
Questions to ask Operators about Standard Work
• How do you do this work?
• How do you know you are doing this work
correctly?
• How do you know there are no defects?
• What do you do if you have a problem?
Productivity
Time Time
Benefits of Standard Work
• Standard documentation for all shifts
• Reductions in injuries and strain
• Employee ownership of process
• More pleasant working conditions; higher
morale
• Better than traditional time and motion
studies
• Reduced variability
Poka-yoke
• Error proof (mistake proof) takes away the
possibility of human error
• The term Poka-yoke was made popular by
Shigeo Shingo
• Fail-safe devices
• Low cost, highly reliable mechanisms
• Detects abnormal situations before they occur,
or
• Once they occur, will stop the equipment from
further production. The machine stoppage
makes the problem visible.
Other Poka-yoke Examples
Value Stream
Purpose of Value Stream Map
• Has customers’ perspective and focuses on meeting
customers’ wants and needs
• Starts with immediate customer and maps back to
receiving inputs from suppliers and shows how fits
into overall value stream
• Provides single view that is a complete, fact-based,
and time-based representation of stream of activities
• Provides common language and view for analysis
• Shows how information triggers and supports
activities
• Shows time for activities and whether they add value
Elements of Value Stream
Map
• Process steps
• Value-add classification for each step
• Information flow such as orders, requirements, schedules,
messages, approvals, specifications, kanban signals, shipping
information, standard procedures
• Box score of key operational metrics including cycle time, waiting
time, working time, conveyance time, distance traveled, items per
shift, items processed per hour,setup time, backlog/work-in-
process, amount of inventory between last step and consumer,
defects, cost information, resource availability and active time,
process variations
• Lead time is amount of time for one item to flow completely
through process, noted along bottom of flow
• Takt time showing customer demand rate, in upper right corner of
flow
Value Stream Analysis Steps
• Identify deliverable, value stream, and sponsor who has authority and
responsibility to allocate resources and make changes across
organization
• Identify customer and value from customer’s perspective as well as
regulatory, legal, and compliance requirements
• Draw visual representation of process current state, generally draw
steps starting at consumer’s view working back through steps to
sources of material and labor; flows from left to right with time, with
steps in order of occurrence
• Add metrics and observations like Takt time/throughput, cycle times,
defect rates, and inventory/work-in-process and information flows to
identify magnitude and frequency of waste
• Use lean principles to reduce or eliminate waste and reduce cycle
time
• Develop future state map, document steps of process that need to
happen, and prioritize and implement action plans to achieve future
state
Value Analysis Matrix Steps
• Structure value analysis matrix
• Number process steps on sub process map
• Have column for each process step
• Estimate time for each process step
• Place check in category for each process step,
either value-add or one of non-value-add
categories
• Total number of hours or number of checks for
each row
• Report percentages of value-add and non-
customer required
Value Analysis Matrix
Example
Process Step 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 10
10 Total % Total
Time (Hours) 1212 1010 1 1 1010 2020 6 6 1010 1 1 1010 2020 100
100 100%
100%
Value - Add
Added ÖÖ ÖÖ 22 2%
2%
Internal Failure
Control/Inspection ÖÖ 66 6%
6%
Prep/Set
Prep/Set-Up
-Up
Total 100
100 100%
100%
RFQ Creation Value Stream
Map Customer Meetings
C/T = 14 days
W/T = 2 days
VA/T = 1 day
Iterate
Assign Buyer Gather Verify Customer Consult with Manu- Create Preliminary
Requirements Requirements facturing Engineer RFQ
C/T = 3 days C/T = 14 days C/T = 14 days C/T = 5 days C/T = 5 days
W/T = 4 hours W/T = 2 days W/T = 2 days W/T = 2 days W/T = 2 days
VA/T = ~ 0 VA/T = 1 day VA/T = 1 days VA/T = 4 hours VA/T = 1 day
Revise
Review and
Triggering Approval Cycle
C/T = 5 days
Event W/T = 1 day Measurable
VA/T = ~ 0 Deliverable
Continue Continue As-Is Process
Create Final Review and
Release RFQ Cycle Time*:
C/T = Calendar Time RFQ Approval Cycle
W/T = Work Time C/T = 5 days C/T = 5 days C/T = 2 days C/T = 58 days
VA/T = Value-Add Time W/T = 2 days W/T = 1 day W/T = 1 day W/T = ~14 days
VA/T = 1 day VA/T = ~0 VA/T = 2 hours
VA/T = 5 days
Revise Assumes no revisions!
Sales Order Processing Value
Stream Map C/T = Calendar Time
W/T = Work Time
VA/T = Value-Add Time
Time Customer is On Telephone
Hardcopy
Train Electronic
Cell
Boat
Person
Plane
Fun Current State Icons
?
?
?
Fax
o
&@#$
%!
Current State Map Setup
Tips
• Use 11” x 17” paper, landscape
• Use pencil and eraser
• Draw by hand
• Don’t waste time putting it on a computer just to
make it look nice (non-value added time)
• Practice, practice, practice
Steps
• Customer
• Supplier
• Process
• Information flow
• Calculate process time and lead-time
Current State Map Setup
Supplier Customer
information Information Flow Area information
• Formula
Time Available
Takt Time =
Demand
Takt Time Calculation
Time available
Shift (8 hours) = 480 mins
Breaks (2 x10) - 20 mins
Lunch - 30 mins
Meetings - 5 mins
C/O - 5 mins
Total Time = 420 mins = 25,200 sec
Demand = 265 parts
Takt Time = 95 sec/part
Takt Time Calculation
• Takt Time = Demand Rate
– Goal: Produce to demand with no excess
capacity
• Takt Time = work time available number of
units sold
• Assume 5 people work, sell 500
units/week:
– Takt Time = (5 x 40 x 60) / 500 = 24 min/unit
– Set cycle time to match personnel/operation
– For three-step process, perfect is 8 min/step
Exercise
• Takt time calculation
Microsoft Office
Word Document
Takt Time Calculation
• Old requirements: 847/day * 240 workdays/yr =
203,000/yr
• 10% growth = 223,600/yr
• New requirements: 223,60/yr/240 workdays/yr =
931/day
• Time available: 8.5 hrs/day - .5 hrs (lunch) - .33 hrs
(breaks) = 7.67 hrs/day
• 3,600 secs/hr * 7.67 hrs/day = 27,612 seconds/day
• 27,612 seconds/day divided by 931 units/day = 29.3
secs per unit
• Cycle time (actually 116 secs/unit) divided by Takt
time (29.3 secs/unit) = 3.95 = 4 operators required
Quick Changeover
8
7
6
5
4 A B C D E
3
2
1
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
1 Hour C/O – Half Batch Size
8
7
B D A C E
6
5
4
3 A C E B D
2
1
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
10 Minute C/O – Small Batch
Size
8
E E E E E
7
6 D D D D D
5
4 C C C C C
3 B B B B B
2
1 A A A A A
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
10 Minute C/O – Many Different
Small Batches
8
B
7 D E
6 D C D
E F B
5
H
4 C C
3 B B
A H G
2
1 A F G A B
I
0
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri
Changeover Summary
Based on 40 hours per week
Number of Production
Number of
C/0 Time Production Time
Changeovers
Runs Available
2 Hour 5 5 30 hours
1 Hour 10 10 30 hours
1. Preparation, after-
process adjustments,
30% 5%
checking of material
and tools (30%) 15%
2. Mounting, removing
tools and parts (5%)
3. Measurements,
settings and 50%
calibrations (15%)
Typical proportions
4. Trial runs and
adjustments (50%)
Step 1. Separate Internal and
External Times
• Checklists
• Functional checks
Before After
• Waste of time to find • Saves time
correct tools • Do not have to replace
• Tools can become tools as often
damaged • Have what you need
• Waste of money for extra where its needed
tools
QCO and Other Building Blocks
• 5S, Visual, POUS, Teams and Standard
Work
• VSM can discover opportunities for QCO
• As Batch Size Reduction continues, QCO
becomes more important
• Kaizen Blitz is a great method to implement
QCO
• Must sustain the gains
Benefits of Quick Changeover
• Shorter lead time
• Less material waste
• Fewer defects
• Less inventory
• Lower space requirements
• Higher productivity
• Greater flexibility
• Better Teamwork
Building Blocks of Lean
• Focus on Process.
• Focus on Elimination of Waste.
• Focus on Speed.
• Time improvement translates directly to
cost savings and customer satisfaction.
Kaizen Blitz Steps
1. Select specific area for improvement.
2. Define current situation in measurable
terms
3. Set aggressive goals (stretch goals).
4. Identify team members.
5. Conduct training on the first day of the
project.
6. Do it (in three to five days).
Step 1 – Select Project
• Value Stream Map
• Bottlenecks
• Customer or quality related issues
• Interdepartmental
• Long lead-times or setup times
• Competitive advantage
• Cost reduction or avoidance
Step 2 – Define Current State
• Video tape
• Time study
• Flowchart
• Historical information
• Observations and interviews
Step 3 – Identify Team Members
• Cross-functional teams (seven to ten persons)
• Hourly and salaried personnel
• Operators, engineers, supervisors, maintenance persons,
managers, technical experts, material handlers, quality
personnel, business support personnel, participants from
the outside
• Typically, Team Leader is person with clout and is the
highest stakeholder in the process. Ideally, the team
leader must possess leadership skills, open minds, strong
desire to succeed and some prior “Lean” experience.
Step 4 – Set Aggressive Goals
• Define the purpose or objective and set stretch
goals.
• Goals should be clearly defined and quantifiable
(e.g., reduce machine set up time by 75%,
increase throughput by 40%, reduce floor space
by 30%).
• Emphasis should be on identifying and
eliminating waste, and then standardizing at the
improved level.
• Benchmark when possible
Step 5 – Conduct Training
• Select hands-on training that is compatible
with the project
• Do training on the first morning
• Provided by an internal or external expert
Step 6 – Do it!
• Perform in 3 to 5 days
Example 1 – Universal Joint
QCO
Category Changeover Tool Change
Target savings 4.9 hours (75%) 14.8 hours (75%)
Actual savings 4.5 hours (69%) 13.8 hours (70%)
Target savings
$291 $879
per day
Actual savings
$268 $820
per day
Total savings $272,041 per year
Example 2 – Tube Mill SMED
• Steering Committee
• Design Teams
• Champions
Lean Team Roles &
Responsibilities
Design Team
Lean Steering HPT
Committee Design Team
Champions Champions
Champions
Steering Committee
Champions
Momentum
• Have to build a
“critical mass” of
employees trained in
Lean and apply
principles
• Build “buy-in” and
get people onboard
• “Bandwagon” affect
Organizational Alignment
Dealing with Objections to Lean
n Par adise
Lea
!
?
Status Quo
Land
Lean Enterprise vs.
Lean Manufacturing
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