Selecting Samples

Research Methods in Language Education 2

Siti Nur’Aini, Ph.D.
 Selecting samples
Population, sample and individual cases

Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases

 Sampling
Population
Population
A sample is a subset of a larger
population of objects
individuals, households,
businesses, organizations and so
forth.
Sample
Sample
Sampling enables researchers to
make estimates of some
unknown characteristics of
the population in question
 The need to sample

Sampling- a valid alternative to a census when

• A survey of the entire population is impracticable
• Budget constraints restrict data collection
• Time constraints restrict data collection
• Results from data collection are needed quickly
Sampling
Probability and Non Probability
Sampling
Probability Sampling (Representative Sampling) – Every
element in the population under study has a non-zero
probability of selection to a sample, and every member of
the population has an equal probability of being selected

Non-Probability Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)

An arbitrary means of selecting sampling units based on
subjective considerations, such as personal judgment or
convenience. It is less preferred to probability sampling
 Sampling techniques

Figure 7.2 Sampling techniques

 Probability sampling
The four stage process

1. Identify sampling frame from research objectives

2. Decide on a suitable sample size

3. Select the appropriate technique and the sample

4. Check that the sample is representative

 Identifying a suitable sampling frame

“The sampling frame for any probability sample is

a complete list of all the cases in the population
from which your sample will be taken.”
• Problems of using existing databases e.g.
Telephone directory
• Extent of possible generalisation from the sample
 The importance of response rate

Key considerations

• Non- respondents and analysis of refusals

• Obtaining a representative sample
• Calculating the active response rate
• Estimating response rate and sample size
 Probability Sampling (1)

Simple Random Sampling – This is a technique which

ensures that each element in the population has an
equal chance of being selected for the sample

 The major advantage of simple random sampling is its

simplicity
 Examples:
• Lottery draw: The name or identifying number of each item
in the population is recorded on a slip of paper and placed in
a box - shuffled – randomly choose required sample size
from the box.
• Each item is numbered and a table of random numbers is
used to select the members of the sample.
• There are many software programs, such as MINITAB and
Excel that have routines that will randomly select a given
number of items from the population.
 Probability Sampling (2)

Systematic Sampling – This is a technique in which an initial

starting point is selected by a random process, after which every
nth number on the list is selected to constitute part of the sample

 For systematic sampling to work best, the list should be random in

nature and not have some underlying systematic pattern

 Example: From a list of 1500 name entries, a name on the list is

randomly selected and then (say) every 25th name thereafter. The
sampling interval in this case would equal 25.
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING……

As described above, in systematic sampling all elements

have the same probability of selection.

14
 Probability Sampling (3)
 Stratified Sampling – This is a technique in which simple random
subsamples are drawn from within different strata that share some
common characteristic
 Probability Sampling (4)

There are other specialized techniques of sampling

such as:

 Cluster Sampling
 Multistage Area Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
• Imagine that the Pati Regency wants to investigate the use of
health care services by residents.
I. Council requests for electoral subdivision maps that identify
and label each area block.
II. From this maps, the council creates a list of all area blocks
(Winong, Pati kota etc). This area will serve as the survey
sampling frame.
III. Every household in that area belongs to a area block.
IV. Each area block represents a cluster of households.
 Multi-stage Sampling

• Combination of all the methods described above.

• Involves selecting a sample in at least two stages.
• e.g: i. Stage 1: Stratified Sampling
• Stage 2: Systematic Sampling
• e.g: ii. Stage 1: Cluster Sampling
• Stage 2: Stratified Sampling
• Stage 3: Simple Random Sampling
 Non- probability sampling (1)

Key considerations

• Deciding on a suitable sample size

• Selecting the appropriate technique

 Non- Probability Sampling (2)

Convenience Sampling – This is a sampling technique which

selects those sampling units most conveniently available at a
certain point in, or over a period, of time

 Major advantages of convenience sampling is that is quick,

convenient and economical; a major disadvantage is that the sample
may not be representative

 Convenience sampling is best used for the purpose of exploratory

research and supplemented subsequently with probability sampling
 Examples

• Suppose 100 car owners are to be selected. Then we may

collect from the RTO's office the list of car owners and
then make a selection of 100 from that (on the basis of
our convenience) to form the sample.
• A group of students in Hamdard university want to study
working mechanism of a clinical instructors. They
interview clinical instructor they knew in pharmacy
school, a couple of instructors who handle them in their
area and few others who are known to them.
 Non-Probability Sampling (3)

Judgment (purposive) Sampling – This is a sampling

technique in which the business researcher selects the
sample based on judgment about some appropriate
characteristic of the sample members

 Example: Selection of certain voting districts which serve as

indicators for the national voting trend
 Non-Probability Sampling (4)

Quota Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which the

business researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a
population are represented in the sample to an extent which is he
or she desires

 Example: A business researcher wants to determine through interview, the

demand for Product X in a district which is very diverse in terms of its
ethnic composition. If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the number
of individuals from each ethnic group interviewed should correspond to the
group’s percentage composition of the total population of that district
• Example: A researcher want to study political issues, and he sets quota of
party identification for selecting a sample.

Quota for sample selection is as follows:

• Registered Republicans 50% Sampled Republicans 100
• Registered Democrats 40% SampledDemocrats 80
• Registered Independents 10% SampledIndependents 20

• One can use quotas for several criterias:

• Race/Ethnicity (Black, White, Latino/a ,Asian )
• Gender (M F )
• Political Affiliation (Democratic, Republican, Independent)
 Non-Probability Sampling (5)

Quota Sampling has advantages and disadvantages:

 Advantages include the speed of data collection, less cost, the element of
convenience, and representativeness (if the subgroups in the sample are
selected properly)

 Disadvantages include the element of subjectivity (convenience sampling

rather than probability-based which leads to improper selection of sampling
units)
 Non-Probability Sampling (6)

 Snowball Sampling – This is a sampling technique in which individuals or

organizations are selected first by probability methods, and then additional
respondents are identified based on information provided by the first group
of respondents.
 Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20 scuba-diving enthusiasts
are identified which, in turn, identify a number of other scuba-divers
Example:
 Contd.

 The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller

sample sizes and costs are necessary.

 Major disadvantage is that the second group of

respondents suggested by the first group may be very
similar and not representative of the population with that
characteristic.
 Sample size

Choice of sample size is

influenced by

• Confidence needed in the data

• Margin of error that can be tolerated

• Types of analyses to be undertaken

• Size of the sample population and distribution

 Sample Size

• Confidence Interval

The confidence interval (also called margin of error) is the

plus-or-minus figure usually reported in newspaper or
television opinion poll results. For example, if you use a
confidence interval of 4 and 47% percent of your sample
picks an answer you can be "sure" that if you had asked the
question of the entire relevant population between 43% (47-
4) and 51% (47+4) would have picked that answer.
• Confidence Level
The confidence level tells you how sure you can be.
It is expressed as a percentage and represents how
often the true percentage of the population who
would pick an answer lies within the confidence
interval. The 95% confidence level means you can be
95% certain; the 99% confidence level means you can
be 99% certain. Most researchers use the 95%
confidence level.