風工程導論

鈍體空氣動力學與空氣彈力學
 鈍體空氣動力學

• Bluff-body vs. Streamlined body

• Boundary Layers & Separation
• Wake & Vortex Formations
• Effects of geometric shape on drag, lift,..

“The problem of bluff-body flow remains almost entirely

in the empirical, descriptive realm of knowledge”
-------------------------------------------------------------
Rushko, 1993
 邊界層流與分離現象
Boundary layers and separation

Considering a viscous flow over a smooth surface, a boundary layer flow

will be formed near the wall. The boundary layer separation occurs if
fluid particles in the boundary layer are sufficiently decelerated by inertial
force (say, adverse pressure gradient) that the flow near the surface
becomes reversed.

(low pressure)
(high pressure)

u
0
y y 0
 邊界層流與分離現象
Boundary layers and separation

Separation point
P  u 
0   0
x  y  at wall
Reverse flow

流體通過曲面之分離現象
 邊界層流與分離現象
Boundary layers and separation
 The pressure gradient normal to the streamline.

For a sharp edge geometry: ,

So the flow cannot follow the geometry of the body which requires a
infinite pressure gradient.

(reattachment)
－ － －

＋ －
(stagnation
＋
＋ )
－ (wake)
－ － －

(separation
)
 邊界層流與分離現象
Boundary layers and separation

• The surface pressures and the drag and lift forces are functions of
separation, reattachment and wake characteristics of bluff-bodies.
• Separation is a result of viscosity and inertia force, therefore, it is a
function of Reynolds number.
• For bluff-body with sharp edges, such as rectangular shaped buildings,
flow separation occurs at these sharp edges. Therefore, effects of
Reynolds number is overlooked in most of the cases.
• However, for bluff-bodies with curved surfaces, such as circular
cylinder (chimneys), the points of separation are strongly dependent
on Reynolds number.
 風壓與風力係數
Pressure and force coefficients

•  
Pressure coefficient:

Bernoulli’s equation:
and are free-stream pressure and velocity.

in the region that Bernoulli’s equation holds.

At the stagnation point,

 風壓與風力係數
Pressure and force coefficients

•  
Force coefficient:

In which, is the total aerodynamic force and is normally the projected

area.

In a case of 2-dimensional body, the force coefficient is usually given in

the form of per unit length.

In which, is the total aerodynamic force per unit length; is the

characteristics width.
 風壓與風力係數
Pressure and force coefficients

昇力 y, Fy
Lift, L

拖曳力
Drag, D

風攻角
angle of attack
x, Fx

 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations

Effects of geometric shape, free stream turbulence, and

Reynolds number on wake, surface pressure, drag, lift,..

• Rectangular prisms
• Circular cylinders
 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations
• Rectangular prisms
 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations
• Rectangular prisms

二維方柱體托曳力與特徵長度之關係
 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations
• Circular cylinders

臨界
流， critical
flow

二維圓柱體托曳力與雷諾數之關係
 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations
• Circular cylinders
(Super-critical)

(Trans-critical)

(Sub-critical)

二維圓柱體表面風壓與雷諾數之關係
 尾跡與渦流
Wake and vortex formations
 外壓與內壓
External pressure and internal pressure

Negative
pressure

Positive Negative
pressure Negative pressure
pressure

- - - - - - - -
+ - + -
+ + + + - - -
-
+ +
- -
 空氣彈力現象

Aeroelasticity is a discipline studying the phenomenon

wherein the aerodynamic force and structural motion interact
significantly.

• Vortex shedding and lock-in 渦流離散與鎖住現象

• Across-wind galloping 橫風向馳振
• Torsional divergence 扭轉發散
• Flutter 顫振
• Wake galloping 尾流馳振
• Wind-rain induced cable vibration 纜索風雨振
 渦流離散與鎖住現象
Vortex shedding and lock-in

A fixed bluff body tends to shed alternating vortices whose

primary frequency fs can be closely predicted by Strouhal
number.
 Strouhal number:

where depends on body geometry and the Reynolds number; is the

across-wind dimension of the body; is the mean velocity of the uniform
flow in which the body is immersed.

工程影響：高層建築橫風向設計風載重，大型煙囪之受
風振動，纜索支撐橋樑在低風速之振動，纜索振動
 渦流離散與鎖住現象
Vortex shedding and lock-in
Shedding freq., fs
Lock-in
region

f0
Structural freq.

Flow velocity, U
When lock-in occurs
(1) Introducing the motion-induced force (aerodynamic damping)
(2) Enhance the spatial correlation of the shedding vortices
 橫風向馳振
Across-wind galloping
y   1 𝑑 𝐶𝐿 𝑦˙
2
2
𝑚 𝑦¨ +2 𝑚 𝜉 𝜔 𝑛 +𝑚 𝜔 𝑛 𝑦 =− 𝜌 𝑈 𝐵 (
𝑑𝛼
+𝐶 𝐷
𝑈 )
B
U

y   The equivalent damping of the system is
Ur

  The system becomes unstable when

工程影響：高壓線之大幅振動
 橫風向馳振
Across-wind galloping
• Along-wind response

0 .3 0
B / D = 0 .4 B / D = 0 .6 B / D = 1 .0 B / D = 2 .0
0 .2 5

0 .2 0

X / D 0 .1 5

0 .1 0

0 .0 5

0 .0 0

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

U /fD U /fD U /fD U /fD

Alongwind response in BL1, Md=5.0

●: Mean, —:prediction ; ○:RMS, ---:prediction
 橫風向馳振
Across-wind galloping
• Across-wind response
0 .0 3 5
(a ) (b ) (c ) (d )
S c r = 1 0 .0 2 S c r = 8 .0 2 S c r = 6 .6 1 S c r = 6 .2 8
0 .0 3 0

渦流離散頻率與結構自然
0 .0 2 5
頻率相同引發共振現象
0 .0 2 0
y / D

0 .0 1 5

0 .0 1 0

0 .0 0 5

0 .0 0 0

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
U / f D U / f D U / f D U / f D
Figure 4. Measured and predicted acrosswind response in BL1—
region of aerodynamic stable
● : measured
-- : prediction based on force spectra
—: aerodynamic damping incorporated in predicted model
 橫風向馳振
Across-wind galloping
• Across-wind response – Negative aerodynamic damping
0 .1 0
(a ) (b ) (c ) (d )
0 .0 9 S c r = 5 .8 2 S c r = 4 .1 1 S c r = 3 .4 8 S c r = 2 .7 6

0 .0 8

0 .0 7

0 .0 6
y / D

0 .0 5

0 .0 4

0 .0 3

0 .0 2

0 .0 1

0 .0 0

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
U / f D U / f D U / f D U / f D
Figure 5. Measured and predicted acrosswind response in BL1—
region of aerodynamic unstable
● : measured
-- : prediction based on force spectra
—: aerodynamic damping incorporated in predicted model
 橫風向馳振
Across-wind galloping
• Across-wind response – Galloping
0 .6
(a ) (b ) (c ) (d ) (e )
S c r = 2 .1 8 S c r = 1 .5 4 S c r = 1 .1 8 S c r = 0 .8 9 S c r = 0 .5 9
0 .5

0 .4
y / D

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0 .0

0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
U / f D U / f D U / f D U / f D U / f D
Figure 6. Measured and predicted acrosswind response in BL1—
region of aerodynamic divergency
● : measured
-- : prediction based on force spectra
 扭轉發散
Torsional divergence

When the torsional moment increases with the attack angle at

a faster rate than the torsional stiffness, torsional divergence
occurs. This critical divergence wind speed should
significantly greater than the design wind speed.
0 .1 5

T o r s io n a l C o e ffic ie n t
0 .1 0

 k M odel 1
M odel 2
K a o -P in g -H s i
0 .0 5

0 .0 0

C M

-0 .0 5

-0 .1 0
發生之風速應明顯低於設計風速
-0 .1 5
-1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
W in d a t ta c k a n g le (d e g r e e )
 顫振
Flutter

• 顫振 Flutter
Flutter is a self-excited oscillation that a structural system
draws energy, by means of its motion, from the wind flow.
• 古典顫振 Classic flutter
Classic flutter is an unstable aeroelastic phenomenon
involving coupling of two d.o.f, the rotational and vertical
modes.
• 單自由度顫振 Single d.o.f flutter
 顫振
Flutter

特定橋樑斷面之顫振現象
發生之風速應明顯低於設計風速
 顫振
Flutter
Tacoma Narrow Bridge Collapse!!!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xox9BVSu7Ok
 顫振
Flutter

Instability induced by dry friction.

 尾流馳振
Wake galloping

downstream
upstream
下游結構受向尾跡中央
線之橫風向平均風力
Wake
lower pressure zone 上游結構之渦流散離現
象會強化下游結構之擾
動風力

可能發生於鄰近之高層建築，成排之大型煙
囪，並排之高壓電纜
 纜索風雨振
Wind-rain induced cable vibration
纜索雨振是發生在斜張橋纜索的一項特殊（風－雨－纜索）
互制的空氣彈力現象。產生此種振動的原因是在特定的風速
條件下，雨水在纜索的上、下表面產生水流，由於水流的不
穩定性進而造成纜索的空氣動力不穩定，形成嚴重的振動。
纜索雨振的確定機制尚不清楚，不過根據
實場的觀察與風洞模型試驗可知下列
幾點原則：
Water • 纜索朝來風方向傾斜才會產生雨振，
rivulet 傾斜 45∘ 時會產生較大的振幅。
• 纜索雨振發生于纜索採用高密度聚乙
Wind
烯 為其外管。
• 發生雨振的纜索外管的直徑多半介於
140mm 至 250mm 之間。
• 雨振通常發生在風速約為 8 ～ 12m/s
之間
• 通常發生雨振的纜索自然頻率在 1 ～
3Hz 之間
 纜索風雨振
Wind-rain induced cable vibration

纜索雨振的確定機制尚不清楚，不過根據實場的觀察與
風洞模型試驗可知下列幾點原則 :

• 纜索朝來風方向傾斜才會產生雨振，傾斜 45∘ 時會
產生較大的振幅。
• 纜索雨振發生于纜索採用高密度聚乙烯 為其外管。
• 發生雨振的纜索外管的直徑多半介於 140mm 至
250mm 之間。
• 雨振通常發生在風速約為 8 ～ 12m/s 之間。
• 通常發生雨振的纜索自然頻率在 1 ～ 3Hz 之間。