Grade-8

 Lesson-1
Discursive Writing
There are two basic types of discursive writing; persuasive and argumentative. It's important to
distinguish the difference to be able to tailor your writing to the chosen audience.

Why is discursive writing important?

Discursive text is important for exploring a variety of ideas and topics within an essay structure. It
involves an introduction, discussion and summary of the subject matter, designed to encourage the
listener to read on.
There can be different tones to a discursive piece of writing including serious and humorous,
dependent on the theme.
Discursive writing is unique in that, although it ultimately puts across a particular
viewpoint relating to the subject, it still discusses both sides of the argument. This
makes it a great piece of writing for people to engage with when they are researching
the topic. It isn’t a shouty, or aggressive piece of written work, but weighs up both
sides of the argument before making its decision.

This makes it easier to engage with for many people, who might otherwise have been
put off by a narrow-minded, one-sided argument. It also works to strengthen the
argument that is ultimately made, as it is shown to be one that takes all the facts into
consideration, and is a very well-informed decision.
Literary Devices:
Euphemism
Juxtaposition
Hyperbole
Tautology
Meiosis
Antithesis
Balanced phrases
Triple structure
Euphemism

 The use of a word or phrase to avoid saying another word or phrase that may be unpleasant or offensive, or
the word or phrase used:
Euphemism is a figure of speech commonly used to replace a word or phrase that is
related to a concept which might make others uncomfortable. Euphemism refers to
figurative language designed to replace phrasing that would otherwise be considered
harsh, impolite, or unpleasant.

This literary device allows for someone to say what they mean indirectly, without
using literal language, as a way of softening the impact of what is being said. The
reason for this would be for the sake of politeness, discretion, and other means of
mitigating communication.
pursuing other opportunities instead of quitting or being fired

left the company instead of quit, walked off the job or got fired

embarking on a journey of self-discovery instead of jobless

economically challenged (poor)

•blowing smoke (lying)

•split (divorce)

•go around the bend (to go insane)

• thin on top (bald)

•Identify euphemism in the following sentences.

•She is between jobs.

•She has resigned her commission.

•He is a little thin on top.

•This pre-loved sofa is for sale.

Juxtaposition
If a waiter served you a whole fish and a scoop of chocolate ice
cream on the same plate, your surprise might be caused by
the juxtaposition, or the side-by-side contrast, of the two foods.

Juxtaposition of two contrasting items is often done deliberately in

writing, music, or art — in order to highlight their differences.
Juxtaposition occurs when two things are placed side by side for comparison,
often to highlight the contrast between the elements. The simplest example
would be the yin-yang symbol.

There, you have a circle where the black and white elements stand in
contrast to one another - positive and negative - but also complement each
other. In the juxtaposition examples below, we'll explore everyday scenarios,
literary contrasts, and juxtaposition in art.
Juxtaposition in Literature

Generally speaking, juxtaposition refers to a stark contrast between two people or

things. Sometimes it's deliberate; other times it's a natural occurrence, such as twin
sisters where one has light blonde hair and the other has dark black hair.

In literature, juxtaposition is a literary device used to create deliberate differences for

the reader to compare and contrast. Let's consider two sisters again. Let's say one is
kind and loving, while the other is mean and conniving. An author might present this
contrast to further a theme, create suspense, or aid character development. They
may serve as character foils.

If a kind heart is paired with a mean spirit, then readers will more readily notice the
sisters' personalities and their respective parts in the story.
A Tales of Two Cities by Charles Dickens
It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the
age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the
season of Light, it was the season of Darkness...

Dickens makes wonderfully obvious use of juxtaposition here. He writes in complete

opposites, indicating it was both "the best of times [and] the worst of times." How can
this be? Well, much of life is a mixture of highs and lows; some have it all, others have
nothing. Here Dickens is honing in on that, clueing the reader in on the differences in
society before the French Revolution.

Good Night by Dylan Thomas

Curse, bless, me now with your fierce tears, I pray. / Do not go gentle into that good
night. / Rage, rage against the dying of the light. / Do not Go Gentle into that.

Here, Thomas is juxtaposing the struggle for life and the acceptance of death. Death is
often referred to as darkness and we see that here with the "dying of the light."
Juxtaposition in Everyday Life

We see contrasts around us every day. And that's the core of juxtaposition. It happens when two or
more people, things, or situations are placed side by side in a comparison that emphasizes style, irony,
humor or sadness. It can be intentional or unintentional. Let's take a look:
•Old with the new: If you've ever visited Rome, you might have noticed that the ancient Colosseum still
stands tall and proud. But, not too far away, there are graffiti-ridden buildings. The two stand in total
contrast to one another.

•Happily or unhappily married: Have you ever gone out to eat and noticed different couples at their
tables? Perhaps one couple is sitting side by side in a booth, talking quietly and closely. Beside them
might be a couple sitting across from one another, with sour looks on their faces and cell phones in
hand. Married life isn't always perfect.

•All shapes and sizes: Sometimes people adopt dogs of very different breeds. Picture a large German
Shepherd walking down the street alongside a tiny Teacup Poodle. The two dogs might be best friends,
but they'll be in total juxtaposition to one another in terms of size.

•Changing the mood: A photographer may take a black and white photo of the sunrise on a cloudy
morning. When he goes home to edit the photo, he might deepen the hues of the dark clouds and
brighten the rays of sun peeping through those clouds. This will create a nice juxtaposition between
dark and light.
Juxtaposition
“Juxtaposition” is the term which defines an act of placing a
pair or even more things or ideas side by side usually in contrast
or comparison. It is a literary means to portray and alleviate the
differences and similarities between the combination of things.
The combining items may be situations, ideas, emotions,
characters, or personalities. The resulting effects of placing
them in proximity is relatively enhanced by the impression and
effect. For instance,
Fearful/reassuring
Darkness/frivolity
Chaos/calm
Indifference/feeling
East/West
Man/nature
Love/hate
Static/changing
Oxymoron
“Oxymoron” is an apparently self-contradictory statement yet
appears to be true. For instance;
Pretty ugly
Same difference
Agree to disagree
Living in the past
Truly false
Natural enhancement
These are literary figures of speech. Here, as clear from the
examples, supposedly opposite statements are put together as a
pair usually within a single statement.
What Is Hyperbole?
Hyperbole is an exaggeration used for emphasis or humor. This literary tool is
often used to make a certain element of a story seem more interesting. To say
you were bored to tears (even when you were never on the verge of crying)
packs a bit more of a punch than, "I was bored."
This literary tool isn't meant to be taken literally because, while lying isn't
encouraged, stretching the truth is the name of the game. Let's have some fun
with entertaining examples of hyperbole for kids that'll acquaint them with a
new element of fiction and hopefully spark a lifelong friendship.

Hyperbole to Express Size

Size works great for hyperbole because it's easy to make something larger than life. See a
few fun, kid-friendly examples of hyperbole the whole family can enjoy.

She's as thin as a toothpick.

Her brain is the size of a pea.
Hyperbole to Express Desperation
Hyperbole is all about drama. It is an exaggeration, after all. See some fun uses of
hyperbole to express desperation.

If I can't get a smartphone, I will die.

My mom is going to kill me.
These dress shoes are killing me.
It was so cold I saw polar bears wearing jackets.
My mom works her fingers to the bone.
I had a ton of chores to do.

Hyperbole to Exaggerate Time

Time gets exaggerated a lot with hyperbole. See a few excellent examples of hyperbole
for kids.
•Grandpa is older than dirt.
•Old Mr. Smith has been teaching here since the Stone Age.
•My dad is always working.
•I've told you a million times not to do that.
Kids see advertisements all the time, and many contain hyperboles.
Explore some examples of hyperboles in advertising.

Disneyland - "The happiest place on Earth."

Energizer - "Keeps going and going and going."
Oscar Meyer - "It doesn't get better than this."
Redbull - "It gives you wings!"

Examples of Hyperbole in Literature

Hyperbole is used in language every day. So, it makes sense that it's a
device writers use to make literature interesting. See hyperbole
examples in literature from some of the greats

Identify hyperbole in the following paragraph.

Tautology

the use of two words or phrases that express the same meaning, in a way that is
unnecessary and usually unintentional:

Tautology is useless restatement, or saying the same thing twice using different
words.

noun useless repetition

“to say that something is `adequate enough' is a tautology”
see more
noun (logic) a statement that is necessarily true
“the statement `he is brave or he is not brave' is a tautology”
see more
Definition of Meiosis
The word meiosis originated from the Greek word meioo, which means “to diminish,”
or “to make smaller.” Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or
dismisses something or somebody; particularly by making use of terms that give an
impression that something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples
are sometimes used in the sense of a synonym of litotes.

In literature, however, meiosis describes the use of understatement to highlight a point,

or explain a situation, or to understate a response used to enhance the effect of a
dramatic moment. For example, when Mercutio is wounded mortally and says, “ay, ay, a
scratch, a scratch…” (Romeo and Juliet, by William Shakespeare) it is a form of
meiosis.
Features of Meiosis
It is intentional understatement.
It is used to belittle a person or an event.
It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration.
It often makes use of litotes as synonyms to give ironic effect.
Examples of Meiosis in Literature
There are several examples of meiosis in literature, where the persons and events are understated,
depending on the situations. Here are some of them:

Example #1: King Lear (By William Shakespeare)

“I am a very foolish fond old man,
Fourscore and upward, not an hour more or less;
And, to deal plainly,
I fear I am not in my perfect mind…”

Shakespeare has used meiosis in these lines to create humor. Although it is undoubtedly clear that the
king has gone mad, his reaction that “I fear I am not in my perfect mind” is an example of an
understatement.
Definition of Tautology
Tautology is a literary device used by writers to say something more than once, using
the same words or synonymous words. The intent of this device is to emphasize a point
or idea for an audience or reader. Depending on the effectiveness of tautology in a
written work, it can be seen as redundant and needless repetition, or it can be considered
poetic license.

Tautology is a phrase or expression that states the same thing

more than once, often in a different way.
Common Examples of Tautology in Everyday Speech
Tautology can be found in many phrases that people frequently use, though most are
unaware of the predominantly needless repetition of words or phrases. Here are some
common examples of tautology in everyday speech:
PIN number (personal identification number number)
over-exaggerate
free gift
return back
more and more
close proximity
it is what it is
repeat again
hot water heater
VIN number (vehicle identification number number)
necessary requirement
frozen ice
over and over
personal opinion
share and share alike
minute to minute
six in one, half-dozen the other
refer back
Antithesis Definition
Antithesis, which literally means “opposite,” is a rhetorical device in which two
opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.

Antithesis emphasizes the idea of contrast by parallel structures of the

contrasted phrases or clauses. The structures of phrases and clauses are similar,
in order to draw the attention of the listeners or readers. For example:

“Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for
mankind.”

The use of contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a giant step,” in the sentence
above emphasizes the significance of one of the biggest landmarks of human
history.
Examples:
These are examples of antithesis:

"Man proposes, God disposes." - Source unknown.

"That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." - Neil Armstrong.
"To err is human; to forgive divine." - Alexander Pope.
"Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice." - William Shakespeare.
"Many are called, but few are chosen." Matthew 22:14.
Juxtaposition and Antithesis
Antithesis is also a specific type of juxtaposition. Antithesis is a narrower term than juxtaposition
in two key ways:

Antithesis involves opposites: The things that are contrasted in antithesis are always pretty strong
and clear opposites. Juxtaposition can involve such oppositional things, but also can involve the
contrast of more complicated things, like two characters or themes.
Antithesis involves a specific grammatical structure: Antithesis is a figure of speech that involves a
very specific parallel sentence structure. Juxtaposition is a literary device that simply refers to a
contrast set up between two things in some way, but it does not necessarily have to involve a
defined grammatical structure.
An example of antithesis is Neal Armstrong's first words when he reached on the surface of the
moon:

"That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

This is a clear pairing of opposites, expressed in a parallel grammatical structure. In contrast, now
imagine a description of Neal Armstrong's figure foregrounded against the night sky:

The tiny figure of Armstrong in his pristine white suit stood out against the expansive darkness of
the universe beyond him.
This description involves juxtaposition rather than antithesis, for two reasons: it does not
contain parallel grammatical structure, and the comparison goes beyond opposition. The
white of the suit contrasts with the darkness of space in a clear contrast of opposites, but the
sentence also contains a comparison between Armstrong's small size and the overwhelming
magnitude of the universe, between the human and the non-human, even between the
temporary and the eternal. These effects, which amount to a feeling of awe and loneliness,
come from the choice to place Armstrong and the universe next to one another—it comes
from their juxtaposition.
Definition of Balanced Sentence
A balanced sentence is made up of two segments which are
equal, not only in length, but also in grammatical structure and
meaning. It could be a periodic or cumulative sentence. A
reader finds both parts equal when he goes through such a
sentence.

Use of Balanced Sentence in Advertising

“Light is faster, but we are safer.” (Global Jet Airlines’ advertising slogan)
“Buy a bucket of chicken and have a barrel of fun.” (KFC’s advertising slogan)

Examples of Balanced Sentence in Literature

Example #1: Coon Tree (by E.B. White)
“On days when warmth is the most important need of the human heart, the kitchen is the place you can
find it; it dries the wet socks, it cools the hot little brain.”

This is a good example of a balanced sentence. The last two clauses are parallel in this sentence, having
the same length and the same grammatical structure. The two identical pieces are giving rhythmical flow
to the lines.
Triple Structure

Description
Use three related words or phrases to grab attention, encapsulate, summarize.

This can be three single words, three phrases or three complete sentences.

The three items can be any three items that fit together to make an impact,
including:

Three key themes that together cover a wide area.

Example
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. (Mark Anthony)

One for the money, two for the show, three to get ready now go cat, go! (Carl Perkins -
Blue Suede Shoes)
Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies, in the final
sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not
clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its
laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children.“
 Find examples of antithesis in text and explain their effect.

 Find examples of balanced phrases and explain their effect.

 Find examples of triple structures in the passage and explain their effect.,
What good is Art, what is good Art?