N

Greenwich, UK

Equator

Prime Meridian

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 觀 念 平 臺

Mengapa memilih sistem koordinat? (Tujuan))

Bagaimana cara memilih sistem koordinat? (Prosedur dan
metode konstruksi)
Mengapa memilih sistem koordinat baru? (TWD97)
Bagaimana cara memilih proyeksi peta? (Metode dan
karakteristik proyeksi)
Bagaimana (bagaimana) sistem koordinat baru dan lama
terkait? (Konversi Koordinat)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Mengapa memilih sistem koordinat?
tujuan:
Menjelaskan posisi spasial setiap titik (Titik) di permukaan
bumi, lalu menentukan ukuran geometris dan orientasi
benda tersebut

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Why do we need an ellipsoid?
European Remote Sensing satellite,
ERS-1 from 780Km

This image depicts the earth’s shape

without water and clouds. It looks
like a sloppily peeled potato, not a
smoothly shaped ellipsoid.
Calculation of geographic position on
this irregular surface is very complex.
A simpler model is needed.

This simplified mathematical

surface is an ellipsoid.
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 平面基準之定義

Horizontal Datum - A base reference for a coordinate

system. It includes the position of an initial point of origin
and the orientation of an ellipsoid that models the surface
of the earth in the region of interest.

Prime
Meridian

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Bagaimana cara memilih sistem koordinat?

Prosedur dan metode konstruksi:

1. Pilih datum geodetik (datum bentuk): perkiraan bumi nyata dengan
bentuk geometris biasa (ellipsoid), yang disebut "ellipsoid
referensi" (Reference Ellipsoid)
Ellipsoid: (a, f) atau (a, b)
Referensi posisi: ellipsoid menunjuk ke titik tertentu di tanah
(koordinat asal, atau titik referensi), seperti asal Huzishan
Datum elevasi: tinggi ortometrik, tinggi geometris (tinggi
ellipsoid)
Tentukan titik tanah (lokasi dan ketinggian) dengan berbagai
metode pengukuran atau pemosisian)
2. Ubah elipsoid ini menjadi bidang (proyeksi peta)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Why choose a new coordinate system?

Humans have a more accurate understanding of the shape of

the earth
Reduce the systematic error of the observation quantification
calculation and improve the accuracy (Choose a new ellipsoid
to be closer to the real earth shape, such as WGS84)
Kohesi regional asli dan perkembangan kohesi global
(Nyaman untuk pengukuran sendi di seluruh dunia, seperti
penentuan posisi GPS)3D(X,Y,Z)
Perkembangan Geodesi

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Earth shape

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 橢球體 Ellipsoid (Datum)
Rotate Ellipse in 3
Dimensions:
b
a

長半徑 Semi-major Axis : a = 6378137 m

短半徑 Semi-minor Axis : b = 6356752.3142
扁率 Flattening Ratio : f=(a-b)/a =
1/298.257223563
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
形狀基準 (Datum, Ellipsoild)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Earth spheroid ellipsoid parameters
Name Semi-Major Axis Semi-Minor 1/Flattening
(km) Axis (km)
Bessel 1841 6377.397 6356079 299.15
Clarke 1866 6378.206 6356.584 294.98
Clarke 1880 6378.249 6356.516 293.46
Everest 6377.276 6356.075 300.80
Helmert 1906 6378.200 6356.818 298.30
Indonesian 1974 6378.160 6356.774 298.25
International 1909 6378.388 6356.912 297.00
GRS67 6378.160 6356.774 298.25
South American 1969 6378.160 6356.774 298.25
WGS 72 6378.135 6356.751 298.26
GRS 80 6378.137 6356.752 298.257
WGS 84 6378.137 國立高雄應用科技大學
6356.752土木系 空間資訊研究
298.257
Earth spheroid ellipsoid parameters

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Determination of shape reference

Principle: the tightness of the local area

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Traditional Horizontal Datums
The Traditional Approach
 Many nations established their own regional datum
– Used various national standards and procedures
– Different time frames
– Calculated ellipsoids that fit well locally
 Established initial point location and orientation with
astronomic observations
Result:
Inconsistent Datums

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Horizontal Datum

ED 50
EUROPEAN
NAD 27 DATUM
NORTH AMERICAN
DATUM

 Ellipsiods
 ERS-1 depicts earth’s
model geographic area of
shape w/o water and
interest only: European Datum not
clouds. Resembles a
accurate in North America (& visa versa)
sloppily pealed potato,
 WGS 84 ellipsiod is the best global fit
not a smooth ellipse.

A worldwide horizontal datum requires

an accurate estimation of the earth’s center
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Traditional Horizontal Datums

Limitations to the Traditional Approach

NAD 27 ED 50
(Clarke Ellipsoid ) (International Ellipsoid)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Horizontal Datums

Global Benefits
 Replaces local datums with a common,
accurate standard
 One system for maps of the entire planet

WGS84

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Horizontal Datums
Global Benefits
 Satellites (GPS) create a worldwide survey
network in the sky
 Isolated positions are no problem

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 NAD27 Example
Traditional Approach in North America
circa 1927

Meades Ranch - Kansas

Clarke Ellipsoid (1866)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Position reference and ground point determination

Coordinate origin (National Geographic Center)

"Huzishan First Triangle Point" (Astronomical Longitude and
Latitude), Puli Township, Nantou County
Huzi Mountain-Touqian Mountain (Astronomical Azimuth)

Determination of ground position (observation method)

Traditional method: triangle trilateral control mesh
Modern method: GPS global positioning system

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 坐標原點 (Initial Point)
 Astronomic positions are measured by observing
stars ( 天文測量 )
 Variations in the Earth's gravity field complicate
this procedure

local level plane

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Determination of ground position (observation method)

Traditional method: triangle trilateral control mesh

A C

B
D
1. Determination of reference point (coordinate origin): astronomical
observation (latitude, longitude, azimuth)
2. Observation and adjustment of triangle trilateral control network: angle,
side length (baseline)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Determine the position of any point on the
surface of the earth (ellipsoid)

Modern method: GPS global positioning system

120˚E 121˚E 122˚E
26˚N

24˚N

1. Frame point establishment (GPS satellite

tracking station)
2. Satellite control network observation and
network adjustment
22˚N

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Datums…Why They Are Important

 World Geodetic Standard 1984 provides a common

accurate reference based on lat/long and accurate
estimations of the center of the earth
 Over 200 local datums are used around the world

Location Datum Shift (fm WGS84)

18Q VT 81170149 NAD27 (US) 201 meters
52S BS 84457638 Tokyo (Japan) 754 meters
29º 18’12.7”N
47º 46”57.9”E ED-50 (Europe) 176 meters
01º 18’18.4”S
15º 46’56.6”E ARC-50 (Africa) 296 meters

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Why doesn’t everyone use a
WGS ?
World Geodetic System 1984--The DoD Standard
 There are still hundreds of legacy local datums in
use throughout the world on existing products
> 30 Datums with > 5 Ellipsoids used by NIMA
> 150 Datums with > 25 Ellipsoids used by others
 Depending the use, local datums may be sufficient –
basis for countless land surveys
 It would take NIMA years and lots of DoD money to
update the entire existing product line
 Note: WGS 84 is used on almost all new NIMA-
produced GI&S products (all digital)
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Most widely used local Datum/Ellipsoid pairs

European
Datum
North American Datum International
WGS Datum
Clarke 1866
Tokyo Datum
Bessel

South American Datum

International Arc Datum
Clarke 1880

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
基準偏移 (Datum Shifts)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Practical Datum Shift Example
Fort Leonard Wood
 NAD-27 Coordinates
– 15S WM 76428 77739
– 15 576,428mE 4,177,739mN
– 37º44.737’N 92º 07.951’W
 WGS-84 Coordinates
– 15S WB 76412 77951
– 15 576,412mE 4,177,951mN
– 37º44.740’N 92º07.960’W
 Difference of:
1,000 km and 213 meters
(MGRS shift) (datum shift)

V7 Series Edition 6 dated 1978

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

基準問題 (Datums Matter)

Actual Position
Datum shift applied

GPS Position
No datum shift applied

“GPS IS VITAL TO, BUT ALSO LIMITED IN SUPPORT OF,

MILITARY TACTICAL NAVIGATION. ITS RELIABILITY
DEPENDS ON THE USERS' UNDERSTANDING OF
CHARTS, NAVIGATION, AND THE OPERATION AND
LIMITATIONS OF THE GPS EQUIPMENT USED. LACKING
THIS BASIC UNDERSTANDING CAN CONTRIBUTE TO
國立高雄應用科技大學
SEVERE MISHAPS.” - NAVSAFECEN土木系 空間資訊研究
201909Z OCT 00
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 坐標系統 (Coordinate Systems)

A datum defines the A coordinate system

initial point and determines how locations are
reference surface referenced from the datum

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

These Coordinates Refer
to the Same Bridge!
a) 37° 53.423’ N, 126° 43.990’ E, h = 23 m
b) 37° 53.423’ N, 126° 43.990’ E, H = 0 m
c) 37° 53’ 25.4” N, 126° 43’ 59.4” E, h = 23 m
d) 37° 53’ 25.4” N, 126° 43’ 59.4” E, H = 0 m
e) 37.89038° N, 126.73316° E, h = 23 m
f) 37.89038° N, 126.73316° E, H = 0 m
g) Zone 52, 300669 m E, 4196075 m N, h = 23 m
h) Zone 52, 300669 m E, 4196075 m N, H = 0 m
i) 52S CG 00668 96075, h = 23 m
j) 52S CG 00668 96075, H = 0 m
k) -3014326.6 m, 4039148.7 m, 3895863.0 m
l) 37° 53.260’ N, 126° 44.116’ E, h  H = 0 m
m) 37° 53’ 15.6” N, 126° 44’ 6.9” E, h  H = 0 m
n) 37.88767° N, 126.73526° E, h  H = 0 m
o) Zone 52, 300872 m E, 4195348 m N, h  H = 0 m
p) 52S CS 00870 95350, h  H = 0 m
q) -3014213.2 m, 4038687.9 m, 3895223.3 m

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 坐標系統 (Coordinate Systems)

Z P
 地心坐標 (X, Y, Z)
H Cartesian coordinates

 橢球坐標 (φ, λ, H)
Z Ellipsoidal coordinates

Y
λ φ

Y
X
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 坐標系統 (Coordinate Systems)
Cartesian Coordinate System
Three dimensional right hand coordinate system with an origin
at the center of the earth and the X axis oriented at at the
Prime Meridian and the Z at the North Pole Z (X,Y,Z)
– X Axis Coordinate Distance from the Y-Z
plane measured parallel to the X-Axis;
positive from90º W Long to 90º E Long
– Y Axis Coordinate Perpendicular distance
Y
from the plane of the prime meridian;
positive in the eastern hemisphere 90°E
and negative in the western.
– Z Axis Coordinate Perpendicular distance
from the plane of the equator; X Prime
positive in the northern Hemisphere 0º Long Meridian
negative in the southern
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 地理坐標 Geographic Coordinates
Latitude, Longitude, & Ellipsoidal Height
Latitude & Longitude are defined by the
Prime Meridian and the Equatorial Observer’s
Z
reference planes Meridian
– Geographic latitude Vertical angle from the
equator to the normal of ellipsoid, positive
Latitude
in Northern Hemisphere and negative
in the southern Prime
Meridian Y
– Geographic longitude Horizontal angle from
the prime meridian positive in the eastern
hemisphere and negative in the western Longitude
X
38° 41’ 08.73” N 077°
– Geodetic height Distance normal from
08’ 08.37” W
the reference ellipsoid
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 高程基準 (Vertical Datum)

Definiti
on
Elevation datum (vertical
datum) Any level surface (i.e. mean
sea level) taken as a surface of reference
from which to reckon elevations .

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 高程基準 (Vertical Datum)

傳統方法 (The Traditional Approach)

( 水準點 )
( 驗潮儀 )

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Vertical standard
( 水準點 )
Bench Mark Like horizontal measurements,
elevation only has meaning when
referenced to some start point.

MSL Elevation ( 平均海水面高程 )

High Tide

Mean Sea Level

Low Tide
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Mean sea level is the most common vertical datum.
 高程基準 (Vertical Datum)
Modern Methods
 Use satellite radar to measure sea level directly;
helps determine geoid shape
 Use GPS to help determine geometric relationships
between given points

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 海圖基準 (Chart Datum)
Marine Navigation charts use variations of low tide
instead of mean sea level for referencing depth.

Q: Why?
A: Ships are expensive. Users like to add
tides to soundings.

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 大地水準面 (Geoid)

A Gravitational Surface of Equal Potential,

which Approximates Mean Sea Level.
(Kira-kira sama dengan gravitasi permukaan laut rata-rata)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

大地水準面之形狀 (Shape of the Geoid)

The Geoid is an undulating surface,

not smooth and regular, due to density
variations inside the earth.

Density Variations

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

The relationship between the natural surface
of the earth, the geoid and the earth ellipsoid

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

How do we model the Earth ?

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Model Accuracy

• Earth Gravitational Model 180-180

Separation accurate to +/- 2-3 meters (globally)
Local deviations can be up to 20 meters

• Earth Gravitational Model 1996 (EGM 96)

Separation accurate to +/- 50 cm-1 meter (globally)
Local deviations can be up to several meters

• Many NIMA & DoD systems still use EGM 180

(e.g. Production Equipment, GPS receivers)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Instrument Measurement

Ellip Problem
soid
al S
urfa Measuring from Geoid
ce Calculating on Ellipsoid

Geopotential
Surface

Instrument centered on
Topographic plumb line
Sur face

Error
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 What is the Height ?
 Topographic or Orthometric
Height (H)
Height above mean sea level
(geodetic height, or in some
cases bathymetry)
 Geodetic Height (h)
Height above reference ellipsoid
 Undulation of the Geoid (N)
difference between the geoid and
reference ellipsoid
h=H+N
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Definition of elevation system
h - Ellipsoid height (starting height of ellipsoid surface)
H - Orthogonal height (calculated height from average sea surface )
N - Earth ups and downs (the difference between the ellipsoidal
surface and the average sea surface)

{
{
h=H+N h { H To
po
Su
N G
eo r fa
id ce
Ellip
soid
H is measured traditionally
h is approximately = N+H
N is modeled using Earth Geoid Model 96 or 180
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 GPS and Differential Levels
Earth's Surface

H
H H
H H
h h Ellipsoid h
h
h

Geoid

h=H+N
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Shape of the Geoid

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

World Geoid Separation

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

U.S. Geoid Heights
(Geoid96)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Review

Horizontal and Vertical Datums provide a frame of

reference in which to calculate locations
A datum definition requires an initial point location,
orientation, and an ellipsoid
WGS-84 is the datum of choice for NIMA products
WGS-84 is an earth centered Cartesian system using a
globally fitted ellipsoid
Gravity affects horizontal and vertical instrument
measurements
Datum mismatches can cause serious operational errors
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
How to represent the surface of the
earth?

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 地圖投影 (Map Projection)
Peta menampilkan semua atau sebagian
informasi di permukaan bumi pada permukaan datar,
dan elipsoid bumi adalah permukaan lengkung yang
tidak dapat diperpanjang, yang memerlukan proyeksi
titik-titik di permukaan bumi ke permukaan datar.
berbagai metode proyeksi yang kami pelajari disebut
peta, proyeksi.

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 The basic concept of projection

Flat surface map

Real earth 3D earth model
(Ellipsoid or
sphere)

Projection surface
Reference surface
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Classification of map projections
According to the nature of the map projection (deformation)

• 正形 (Conformal) – Preserves Angles. (and thus

Shapes at least over small distances)
• 等積 (Equal Area) – Preserves Size or area. Area of all
features on the map have the same relative
proportions and size as they do on the globe.
• 等距 (Equidistant) – Preserves distance. (but only in
certain directions).
• 等方位或等角 (Azimuthal) – Preserves directions such
that a direction on a globe is the same as a direction
on map
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
The combination of properties of map projection

Equal area Isometric Iso-azimuth Ortho

Equal area -- No Yes No

Isometric No -- Yes No
Iso-azimuth Yes Yes -- Yes

Ortho No No Yes --

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Map and Chart Projections
Projections are attempts to portray the surface of the earth
on a flat surface. Some distortions of conformality (shapes
& angles), distance, direction, scale, and area always result
from the process.

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Classification of map projections
According to the relative
position of the projection plane
and the surface of the earth

Upright projection
Oblique projection
Horizontal projection

Azimuth projection
Conic projection
Cylindrical projection

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 地圖投影 (Map Projection) (I)
Purpose-Convert the latitude and longitude coordinates of the earth to rectangular
coordinates on the map plane
Classification-projection surface ：透視 (Perspective) , 圓錐 (Conical) , 圓柱 (Cylindrical)
方 位：直立 (Normal) , 橫向 (Transverse) , 傾斜 (Oblique)
性 質：正形 (Conformality) , 等角 (Equivalence) , 等距 (Equidistance)

透視投影 (Perspective Projection)

圓錐投影 (Conical Projection)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 地圖投影 (Map Projection) (II)
圓柱投影 (Cylindrical Projection)

極立體投影 (Polar 橫麥卡脫投影

Stereo Projection) (UTM)

Lambert
正形圓錐投影

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Conic (kerucut) projection

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Perspective (azimuth) projection

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Polar Orthographic (Azimuthal)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Polar Stereographic (Conformal)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Considerations for the choice of map
projection method

Geographical location shape and scope

of the cartographic area
Drawing scale
The content of the map (isi Peta)
Way of publishing
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Considerations for the choice of
map projection method

The purpose of the picture: consideration of

deformation
The shape of the drawing area: square, round or
long and narrow
Location of the map area: Latitude of location
The time limit of drawing: the difficulty of
projection
The size of the drawing scale: the size of the
allowable error
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Mercator( 麥卡脫 ) 投
影 (tuo ying = projection)
Cylinder Tangent at Equator
Line Center Earth to Cylinder

True on Equator - Touch Curve

Meridians Up/Down Straight

Lines. Evenly Spaced

Parallels Left Right Lines

Unevenly Spaced
Note:
Not a Perspective Projection
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
高斯—克呂格 (Gauss-Kruger) 投影

Geometric concept

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 高斯—克呂格 (Gauss-Kruger) 投影
Projection characteristics:
The projection of the central meridian is a straight line as the coordinate axis
of the rectangular coordinate system
Projection has equiangularity value
No length deformation on the central meridian
Deformation characteristics :
No length deformation on the central meridian
The same latitude, the farther away from the central meridian, the greater the
deformation
On the same meridian, the lower the latitude, the greater the deformation
The maximum projection distortion is at the intersection of the equator and
the projected edge meridian (taking a precision difference of 3° as an
example, the length distortion is 0.138%)
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
橫麥卡脫投影（ UTM)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 橫麥卡脫投影（ UTM)
Geometric meaning ：
　 UTM projection belongs to the horizontal axis equiangular cut cylindrical
projection. The cylinder cuts the earth on two contour circles. After projection,
there is no deformation on the two secant lines. The length ratio on the central
meridian is less than 1 (assumed to be 0.9996)
Meaning of projection deformation:
　 Improve the deformation of the low latitude area of the Gauss-Krüger projection, so
that the maximum length deformation at φ=0o and λ=3o is less than +0.001, so the
length deformation of the central meridian is -0.0004, which is about ± ± There is
no deformation on the two secant lines at a position of 180 kilometers (±1o 40').
The farther away from the two secant lines, the greater the deformation. The length
deformation within the two secant lines is negative, and the other is positive

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

UTM The length of the projection is deformed

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Mercator Projection (Conformal)

Good for ocean

navigation
Parallels of latitude
are not equidistant

Great Circle:
Shortest Distance

Rhumb Line:
Line of Constant
Bearing

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Lambert Conformal Conic Projection

 Shape is preserved
 Great Circles are near
straight lines
 Rhumb Line is curved
 Used for small scale
products with large East-
West Expanses
 Common NIMA
projection for:
JNC, GNC, ONC

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

UTM 分帶（ Zone)

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

• Projecting the sphere onto a cylinder

tangent to a central meridian.
• Distortionof scale, distance, direction
and area increase away from the
central meridian.
• Ifyou rotate the cylinder every 6º of
longitude you create the UTM
projection.
• This projection is used on map scales
of 1:500,00 and larger

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Universal Tranverse Mercator
The UTM graticule coverage
Each belt is 6O in longitude wide
84o N

Equator 0 meters
10,000,000m

80o S
180o 0o 180o
1 30 60
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Universal Tranverse Mercator
The UTM graticule coverage
Each belt is 6O in longitude wide
84o N

0 meters N
Equator 10,000,000m N

80o S
180o 0o 180o
1 30 60
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Universal Transverse Mercator Grid
Central
Meridian
2 3 4
5 6 7 4 5 6 7 8 16o
82 3 4 5 6 7 82 3
1,700,000
1,600,000
1,500,000
1,400,000
1,300,000
1,200,000
1,100,000
1,000,000
900,000
800,000
700,000
600,000
500,000
400,000

0o
300,000
200,000
0o
100,000
2 3 4
5 6 7
4 5 6 7 8
8
174o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 2 3 156o
Zone 2 168 o Zone 3 162 o Zone 4
03 508,256mE 0,567,359mN 國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 UTM projection system used in Taiwan
UTM is to divide the world into 60 120 ˚E 121˚E 122 ˚E
26˚N
zones (each 6 ˚ zone), Taiwan
area:
Penghu is located in Zone 50
(Central Longitude 117 ˚)
The main island of Taiwan is 24˚N
located in Zone 51 (Central
Longitude 123˚)
The western plain of Taiwan’s
main island is located at the
left edge of the 51st belt (the
central meridian 123 ˚), and its 22˚N
scale is deformed greatly 國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 TM projection system used in Taiwan
After the first triangle point detection in the Republic of China in 1965, the
first version of the basic map of the country was produced with 3˚ sub-band
TM projection (3˚TM)
After the Republic of China in 70 years, the second edition of the basic map
revision and testing and other maps will use the 2˚ sub-band TM projection
(2˚TM).
UTM, 3˚TM and 2˚TM related parameters
Central meridian Central meridian E coordinate
scale ratio westward shift
UTM 117˚ ， 123˚ 0.9996 500,000

3˚TM 121˚ 1.0000 350,000

2˚TM 121˚ 0.9999 250,000
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 坐 標 轉 換
Coordinate Transformation

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Conversion of plane
coordinates
Purpose:
Convert from a two-dimensional coordinate system (x, y) to
another two-dimensional coordinate system (u, v)
Use ：
Convert GIS graphics from different projection systems to
a single projection system
Deformation or expansion error generated when adjusting
factorized graphics
Geometric error and distortion correction of telemetry
images (Geo-coded)
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Conversion of plane coordinates
(continued)
Method ：
Select the appropriate mapping function and control point for conversion
processing; commonly used mathematical modes include ：
Helmert conversion (four-parameter conversion)
Affine conversion (affine conversion or six-parameter conversion)
Bi-linear conversion (Bi-Linear, eight-parameter conversion)
Perspective projection conversion (Perspective Projection, eight
parameters)
Second-order polynomial conversion (2nd Degree Polynomial, twelve
parameters)
Third-order polynomial conversion (3rd Degree Polynomial, sixteen
parameters)
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Helmert conversion (four-parameter conversion)

u    cos   x    sin   y  x0
v     sin   x    cos   y  y0
y
Matrix expression v

P
u   cos sin    x   x0  ●

v       sin  cos   y    y  u
       0
θ
●
yo
Four parameters: ●
xo x
λ : Scale parameter (Scale)
θ : Rotation angle (Rotation)
Xo : the translation amount of the coordinate origin (Shift xo)
Yo : Shift amount of coordinate origin (Shift yo)
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Helmert conversion (four-parameter
conversion)

令 a    cos  c  X0
b    sin  d  Y0
X  a x  b y  c
Y  b  x  a  y  d

 X   a b  x   c 
Y    b a   y   d  characteristic:
      
1. Two coordinate axes orthogonal
  a 2  b2 2. The two coordinate axes have
the same scale
  tan 1 (b / a )

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Six-parameter conversion (affine conversion)

Affine Transformation
u  x  cos(   )  x   y  sin(   )  y  x0
v    y  sin(   )  x   y  cos(   )  y  y0

Six parameters: y’ y
λx ： The scale parameter of the x-axis (Scale)
v
λy : y-axis scale parameter (Scale) Δθ
P
θ : Rotation angle (Rotation) ●

△θ : The deflection angle of the x-y axis that is not u

orthogonal
x0 : Shift amount of coordinate origin (Shift xo) ●
θ
y0 : Shift amount of coordinate origin (Shift yo) yo
● x
xo
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Six-parameter conversion (affine conversion)

a1   x  cos(   ) ; a 2   x  sin(   )
b1    y  sin(   ) ; b2   y  cos(   )
c1  x0 ; c2  y 0

u  a1  x  b1  y  c1
v  a2  x  b2  y  c2

u  a1 b1   x  c1 
v   a   
b2   y 
 c  characteristic:
   2  2
1. The x-y coordinate axis may not be orthogonal
2. The scale of the x-y coordinate axis can be
different

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

雙線性轉換 (B-Linear Transformation)

u  a0  a1  x  a 2  y  a3  xy
v  b0  b1  x  b2  y  b3  xy

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

透視投影轉換 (Perspective Transformation)

a 0  a1 x  a 2 y
u
a 6  a 7 x  a8 y
a 3  a 4 x  a5 y
v
a 6  a 7 x  a8 y

Correction of aerial photographs

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

二階多項式轉換 (QuadraticTransformation)

u  a0  a1  x  a 2  y  a3  xy  a 4  x 2  a5  y 2
v  b0  b1  x  b2  y  b3  xy  b4  x 2  b5  y 2

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 三階多項式轉換 (Cubic
Transformation)
u  a0  a1 x  a 2 y  a3 xy  a 4 x 2  a5 y 2  a6 x 2 y  a7 xy 2  a8 x 3  a9 y 3
v  b0  b1 x  b2 y  b3 xy  b4 x 2  b5 y 2  b6 x 2 y  b7 xy 2  b8 x 3  b9 y 3

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Example: Measured image point
coordinate conversion
v
y
2
(Input Data)
1 3
x
Coordinates of
Fiducial Mark Points 4

u
Measured Coord.s Calibrated. Coord.s
----------------------- ------------------------
Point X Y x y
1001 55.169 159.893 -113.000 0.000
1002 167.716 273.482 0.000 113.000
1003 281.000 160.706 113.000 0.000
1004 168.580 46.939 0.000 -113.000
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
Helmert Transformation (Output)

x= aX+bY+c
y = -b X + a Y + d

Trans. Parameters σ0
a -0.0008 0.001
b 0.0037 0.001
c -168.5681 0.213
d -159.4972 0.213

Variance = 0.03478
Standard Deviation = 0.18649

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Coordinates after Transformated

Measured Coord.s Transformated Coord.s

---------------------- ----------------------------
Point X Y x y
1001 55.169 159.893 -112.853 0.057
1002 167.716 273.482 0.019 113.133
1003 281.000 160.706 112.790 0.033
1004 168.580 46.939 0.044 -113.222
1005 228.498 105.029 60.126 -55.403
1006 270.307 199.949 102.252 39.282
1007 259.080 231.064 91.149 70.412
1008 220.980 224.993 53.059 64.488
1009 123.952 234.036 -43.854 73.882
1010 101.829 104.191 -66.439 -55.771

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Affine Transformation (Output)

x = a0 + a1 X + a2 Y
y = b 0 + b1 X + b 2 Y
Trans. Parameters σ0
a0 -168.8514 0.119
a1 0.0007 0.000
a2 0.0038 0.000
b0 -159.2649 0.119
b1 -0.0036 0.000
b2 -0.0024 0.000

Variance = 0.00596
Standard Deviation = 0.07720
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Coordinates after Transformated

Measured Coord.s Transformated Coord.s

---------------------- ----------------------------
Point X Y x y
1001 55.169 159.893 -113.032 0.044
1002 167.716 273.482 0.032 112.955
1003 281.000 160.706 112.968 0.045
1004 168.580 46.939 0.032 -113.044
1005 228.498 105.029 60.215 -55.310
1006 270.307 199.949 102.417 39.231
1007 259.080 231.064 91.301 70.312
1008 220.980 224.993 53.150 64.392
1009 123.952 234.036 -43.915 73.762
1010 101.829 104.191 -66.550 -55.691

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 範例：影像 < － > 像片 坐標轉換
y
u
Input Data ： 2

1 3
Measured Image and
x
Photo Coordinates of
Fiducial Marks
v 4

+- Photo Coordinates -+ +- mage Coordinates -+

( 1 ) ( -113.000 , 000.000 ) ( 196.0 , 2034.0 )
( 2 ) ( 000.000 , 113.000 ) ( 2109.0 , 156.0 )
( 3 ) ( 113.000 , 000.000 ) ( 3993.0 , 2069.0 )
( 4 ) ( 000.000 , -113.000 ) ( 2084.0 , 3951.0 )

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Affine Transformation
<<< Transformation Equation Between Image and Photo >>>
<PIXEL> Scale : 59.520 Microns / Pixel Theta : -0.009223
<LINE> Scale : 59.550 Microns / Line Theta : -0.006583

+--- From Image to Photo ----+ +--- From Photo to Image ----+
(XP) (YP) (XM) (YM)
<X> 5.95170270D-02 5.48938344D-04 1.68008943D+01 1.54876640D-01
<Y> 3.92042307D-04 -5.95483935D-02 1.10610228D-01 -1.67920446D+01
< 1 > -1.25522597D+02 1.21072777D+02 2.09550000D+03 2.05250000D+03

(1) ( -59.85 , 58.94 ) 83.99 ( 1.0 , 1.0 ) 1.4

(2) ( 59.97 , -59.06 ) 84.17 ( -1.0 , -1.0 ) 1.4
(3) ( -59.97 , 59.06 ) 84.17 ( 1.0 , 1.0 ) 1.4
(4) ( 59.85 , -58.94 ) 84.00 ( -1.0 , -1.0 ) 1.4
< S.D. > ( 59.91 , 59.00 ) 84.08 ( 1.0 , 1.0 ) 1.4

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Datum Transformation and
Coordinate Conversion

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Cartesian Coordinate System

Z Ellipsoid
WGS -84 is an
Earth Centered sized a & f
Earth Fixed;
Origin to with 
+/- 10 cm

 Y

X 國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Datums and Defining Parameters
To translate one datum to another we must know the
relationship between the chosen ellipsoids in terms
of position and orientation. The relationship is is
defined by 7 constants.
A. 3 - Distance of the ellipsoid center from the center of
the earth (X, Y, Z)
B. 3 - Rotations around the X, Y, and Z of the Cartesian
Coordinate System Axes (, , )
C. 1 - Scale change (S) of the survey control network

2 - The size and shape of the ellipsoid (semi major

axis a and flattening f approximately 1/298
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Differences Between Horizontal Datums
 The two ellipsoid centers called  X,  Y,  Z
 The rotation about the X,Y, and Z axes in seconds of arc
 The difference in size between the two ellipsoids
 Scale Change of the Survey Control Network S

Z System 2
 NAD-27


System 1
WGS-84 Z
Y
Y
X
X 國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究
 Coordinate Conversion and
Datum Transformation
 References: NIMA TR8350.2, TEC-SR-7, DMA TM 8358.1
 Convert from Grid to Geographic Coordinates
 Convert from Geographic to Cartesian Coordinates
 Apply Datum Transformation
3 Parameter (X, Y, Z, and a & f of Ellipsoid)
7 Parameter (X , Y , Z , S, a & F of Ellipsoid)
* For most uses 3 parameter shifts are acceptable
 Compute New Geographic Coordinates
 Compute New UTM, MGRS etc. Coordinates
 Error in transformation propagates to final coordinates

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

Coordinate Conversion and
Datum Transformation

國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究

 Conversion of GPS coordinates and TM2
projection coordinates

WGS 84( ,  , H ) (1) WGS 84( X , Y , Z )

(2)
(3)
GRS 67( ,  , H ) GRS 67( X , Y , Z )

(4) X  ( N ' H ) cos   cos 

Y  ( N ' H ) cos   sin 
GRS 67( N , E ; 2o TM )
Z  ( N ' (1  e 2 )  H )  sin 
a
N'
(1  e 2 sin 2  )1 / 2
b  a (1  f )
( a 2  b 2 )1 / 2
e
a
國立高雄應用科技大學 土木系 空間資訊研究