Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

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Chapter 10

Endocrine System
Lecture Outline

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Endocrine System Glands

Figure 10.1
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Cell Secretion Types 1

Autocrine:
• released by cells and a have local effect on same cell
type
• Example - eicosanoids

Paracrine:
• released by cells that affect other cell types in
close proximity
• Example - somatostatin

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Cell Secretion Types 2

Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators:

• secreted by nerve cells
• Example - nervous system function

Hormones and neurohormones:

• secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
• Example - epinephrine and insulin

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Endocrine System Functions 1

1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance

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Endocrine System Functions 2

6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of Reproductive functions
9. Uterine contraction and milk release
10. Immune System regulation

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Characteristics 1

The endocrine system is composed of endocrine

glands and specialized endocrine cells located
throughout the body.
Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute
amounts of chemical messengers called
hormones into the bloodstream, rather than into
a duct.
Hormones then travel through the general blood
circulation to target tissues or effectors.
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Characteristics 2

The target tissues have receptors for a specific

hormone.
Hormones produce a particular response in the
target tissues.

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Types of Hormones
Water-soluble hormones:
• includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
• most common
• Examples - growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin

Lipid-soluble hormones:
• includes steroids and eicosanoids
• Examples - LH, FSH, androgens

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Control of Hormone Release 1

Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the

release of some hormones.
These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli
because they circulate in the blood,
Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.
Hormone release can also be under neural control.
Following action potentials, neurons release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells that
produce the hormone.
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Control of Hormone Release 2

Hormone release can also be controlled by other

hormones.
It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in
turn, stimulates the secretion of other
hormones.
The same three types of stimuli (humoral, neural,
and hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit hormone
release.

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Humoral Regulation

Figure 10.2
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Neural Regulation

Figure 10.3
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Hormonal Regulation

Figure 10.4
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Inhibition of Hormone Release 1

Humoral inhibition of hormone release generally

involves the actions of companion hormones.
Usually each of the companion hormones performs
an opposite function.
For example, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal
cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone in response
to low blood pressure, but to lower it the heart atria
secrete atrial natriuretic peptide.
They work together to maintain homeostasis of
blood pressure.
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Inhibition of Hormone Release 2

Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate

targets.
If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target
endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone.
In control of hormone release by other hormones,
some hormones are inhibitory hormones, that
reduce the release of the hormone being controlled.
For example, thyroid hormones can control their own
blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary
tropic hormone.
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Regulation of Blood Hormone Levels

Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in
the blood within a homeostatic range: negative
feedback and positive feedback
Most hormones are regulated by a negative-
feedback mechanism, whereby the hormone’s
secretion is inhibited by the hormone itself once
blood levels have reached a certain point.
Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback,
as exemplified by tropic hormone action.

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Negative and Positive Feedback

Figure 10.5
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Hormone Receptors 1

A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have

the receptor for that hormone.
The portion of each receptor molecule where a
hormone binds is called a receptor site.
The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it.
Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are structurally similar.
This specificity is due to molecular shape and
chemical characteristic.
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Hormone Receptors 2

Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to

their own classes of receptors.
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular
size allowing to easily pass through the cell
membrane.
Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-
bound receptors. Water-soluble hormones are
polar molecules and cannot pass through the cell
membrane.
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Lipid-Soluble Hormone Receptors

Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular
size, allowing to easily pass through the cell
membrane and nuclear membrane.
Nuclear receptors can also be located in the
cytoplasm, but then move to the nucleus when
activated.
When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the
hormone-receptor complex interacts with nuclear
DNA to regulate specific gene transcription.
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Water-Soluble Receptors
Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and peptide
types, cannot pass through the cell membrane.
Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors,
that are proteins that extend across the cell
membrane, with their hormone-binding sites
exposed on the cell membrane’s outer surface.
When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the
response dictated by the hormone-receptor
interaction.
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Target Tissue Specificity and Response

Figure 10.6
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Receptors

Figure 10.7
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Action of Nuclear Receptors

Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein
synthesis.
Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell
membrane and bind to their receptors, with the
complex now binding to hormone-response
elements on DNA.
This action regulates the transcription of specific
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules
and protein synthesis occurs.
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Nuclear Receptor Model

Figure 10.8
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Membrane Receptor Actions 1

Membrane receptors act in two ways, either

altering the activity of G proteins on the inner
surface of the cell membrane or directly altering
the activity of intracellular enzymes.
Activation of G proteins, or intracellular
enzymes, elicits specific responses in cells,
including the production of molecules called,
second messengers.

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Membrane Receptor Actions 2

A second messenger molecule is produced inside

a cell once a ligand binds to its membrane-bound
receptor.
A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific
cellular processes inside the cell in response to
the hormone.

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G-Protein Activation 1

Many membrane-bound receptors produce

responses through the action of G proteins, which
consist of 3 subunits.
The G proteins are so named because one of the
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides.
G-proteins, after several sequential actions, interact
with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP
to cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate binds to protein
kinases and activates them.
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G-Protein Activation 2

Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate

the activity of other enzymes.
Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases
can increase or decrease its activity.
Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme,
breaks down cAMP and thus results in no further
cell stimulation.

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G-Protein Activation 3

Figure 10.9
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Cyclic AMP Synthesis

Figure 10.10
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Signal Amplification 1

Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of

second messengers act quickly and have an
amplification effect.
Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of the hormonal signal.

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Signal Amplification 2

With amplification, a single hormone activates

many second messengers, each of which
activates enzymes that produce an enormous
amount of final product.
The efficiency of this second-messenger
amplification is virtually unparalleled in the body.

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Cascade Effect

Figure 10.11
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Pituitary Gland 1

Small gland in brain

Controlled by hypothalamus
Divided into 2 regions: anterior and posterior
Secretes at least 6 hormones

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Pituitary Gland 2

Figure 10.12
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Anterior Pituitary Gland Actions

The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes
hormones, that is under the control of the
hypothalamus.
Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones that stimulate the production and
secretion of a specific hormone.
Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of
a specific anterior pituitary hormone

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Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary

Figure 10.13
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1

Growth Hormone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: stimulates growth of bones,
muscles, and organs
• Abnormalities:
Too much GH causes giantism
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 2

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

• Target tissues: thyroid gland
• Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
• Abnormalities:
Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

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 Regulation of Thyroid Hormone 43

Secretion

Figure 10.16
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 3

Gonadotrophin Hormone LH
LH (Luteinizing) for females:
• Target tissue: ovaries
• Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone
production
LH for males:
• Target tissue: testes
• Function: sperm production and testosterone
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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 4

Gonadotrophin Hormone FSH

Follicle-Stimulating for females:
• Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
• Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion

FSH for males:

• Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
• Function: sperm production

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 5

Prolactin:
• Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
• Functions: milk production

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones 6

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH):

• Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin
• Functions: stimulate melanin production in
melanocytes
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH):
• Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex
• Functions: stimulate production of certain
corticosteroids

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Posterior Pituitary Actions

The posterior pituitary gland synthesizes and
releases hormones produced by neuroendocrine
cells in the hypothalamus.
The two hormones released from the posterior
pituitary are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
oxytocin.

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Posterior Gland Hormones 1

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):

• Target tissues: kidneys
• Functions: conserve water
• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
• low ADH
• kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute
• (watery) urine
• can lead to dehydration and thirst

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Posterior Gland Hormones 2

Oxytocin:
• Target tissues: uterus
• Functions: increases uterine contractions during labor

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Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary

Figure 10.14
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Thyroid Gland
One of largest glands
Requires iodine to function
Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
• Target tissues: bone and some other tissues
• Function: reduces blood calcium level when high

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Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism:
• Decreased metabolism • Increased metabolism
• Weight gain, reduced • Weight loss, increased
appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
• Low temp. and pulse • Higher temp. and pulse
• Dry, cold skin • Warm, flushed skin
• Myxedema in adults • Graves’ disease (leads
to goiter)
• Cretinism in infants
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Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
• Target tissues: bones and kidneys
• Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than
calcitonin)
If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone
matrix and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break down
bone matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

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Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

Figure 10.17
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Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands

Figure 10.15
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(d) ©Victor Eroschenko
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Adrenal Gland Actions

The adrenal glands are two small glands located
superior to each kidney
Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called the
adrenal medulla, and an outer part, called the
adrenal cortex.
The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex
function as separate endocrine glands.

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Adrenal Glands

Figure 10.18
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(c) ©Victor Eroschenko
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Adrenal Gland Hormones 1

Adrenal medulla hormones:

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
• Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Functions: released as part of fight or flight response

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 Regulation of Adrenal Medullary 60

Secretions

Figure 10.19
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Adrenal Gland Hormones 2

Adrenal cortex hormone:

• Aldosterone:
• Type of mineralocorticoids
• Target tissues: kidneys

• Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and K+ to be

secreted, indirectly involved with blood pressure and
blood volume

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Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion

Figure 10.20
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Adrenal Gland Hormones 3

Cortisol:
• Type of glucocorticoids
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: increases breakdown of fat and
• protein for energy uses reduces inflammatory and
immune responses

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Regulation of Cortisol Secretion

Figure 10.21
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Adrenal Gland Hormones 4

Androgens:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions:
• Males: secondary sexual characteristics
• Females: sex drive

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Pancreas Actions 1

The pancreas is a mixed gland, with an exocrine

portion and an endocrine portion.
The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes.
The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), which are
dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of the
pancreas.

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Pancreas Actions 2

The islets consist of three cell types, each of

which secretes a separate hormone.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete
insulin, and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
These three hormones regulate the blood levels
of nutrients, especially glucose

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Pancreas Structure

Figure 10.22
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©Biophoto Associates/Science Source
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Pancreas Hormones 1

Insulin:
• Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
• Functions:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
• extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

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Insulin Abnormalities
Diabetes mellitus:
• Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
• Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue
• Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)
• Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese
people, can be treated with diet but can turn into
type I

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Pancreas Hormones 2

Glucagon:
• Target tissues: liver
• Function:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted
• glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose

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Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels

Figure 10.23
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Testes Hormone
Testosterone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive
organ development and function

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Ovarian Hormones
Estrogen/Progesterone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
development and menstrual cycle

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Thymus Gland Hormone

Thymosin:
• Target tissues: immune system tissues
• Functions: promotes immune system development
and function

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Pineal Gland Hormone

Melatonin:
Target tissues: hypothalamus
Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty and
controls circadian rhythms. Light affects its
function.

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