Chapter 18 - Reproduction in Plants

Chapter 18 – Reproduction
in Plants
CHAPTER 18 Reproduction in Plants
18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants
You should be able to:

■ describe the methods of asexual reproduction in
plants.
UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Natural Vegetative Propagation in Flowering

Plants
• Vegetative propagation or vegetative reproduction is a form of
asexual reproduction found in plants.
• Stems are the most common organ to be used for reproduction.
At a region on the stem known as the node, a bud grows and
develops into a new, genetically identical daughter plant.
• At a certain stage they become detached from the parent plant
and become independent.
• E.g. Runners of strawberry plant

• Many plants develop specialised organs with buds and a store

of food.
• During harsh environmental conditions such as winter

seasons or drought, the rest of the plant withers, leaving the
storage organs intact underground.
• When conditions are favourable, the stored food will be used

for growth of new plants. In this way, the plant can survive
from one year to the next.
• This is called perennation, and the storage organs are known

as perennating organs.

Examples of storage organs modified from the shoots, stems and

roots of plants

Artificial propagation of Plants
Cuttings
• The stem of the plant is cut just below a node. The cutting is
planted in soil and adventitious roots will develop to form a new
plant.

Layering
• The stem of the plant with a node is bent downwards into moist
soil to induce the development of roots. The rooted stem can
then be cut off from the parent and planted separately.

Budding and grafting

• Grafting is the transplantation of part of one plant, called the
scion, onto the lower part of another plant, called the stock.
• When the scion is a bud rather than a shoot, the technique is
called budding instead of grafting.

Tissue culture and micropropagation
• Mature plant cells with a nucleus can divide and grow into
new orgnaisms given the right conditions – totipotency.
• Micropropagation refers to
the propagation of isolated
cells or small pieces of
plant tissue in special culture
solutions. The growth of
tissue under controlled
conditions is called
tissue culture.

Advantages of tissue culture:

• Large numbers of plants can be produced more quickly than
conventional cultivation techniques.
• Virus-free plants can be obtained, as virus-free plant tissue can
be selected and cultured.
• Plants can be produced at any time of the year and can be kept
in cold storage, taking up little space.
• If a new gene is introduced into a plant cell by genetic
engineering, the genetically modified cells can be easily cloned
to produce many new plants.
Disadvantages of tissue culture:

• As the cloned plants are genetically identical, they may not be
able to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The
appearance of a new disease or pest could wipe out an entire
crop

18.2 Structure of a Flower

■ describe the structure and function of parts of a fl
ower.

18.2 Structure of a flower
Structure of a flower



• In most cases, flowers are not borne singly but are

grouped in a cluster on a common stalk. Such clusters
are termed inflorescences.
• Flowers can be bisexual or hermaphrodite (contains

both male and female parts) or unisexual (contains
only male or female parts). A plant with both male and
female unisexual flowers is said to be monoecious.
• If male and female flowers are borne on separate

plants, the plant is dioecious


18.3 Pollination
■ distinguish self-pollination and cross-pollination;
and
■ compare the structure of an insect pollinated
flower and a wind pollinated flower and relate
these to their functions in pollination.

18.3 Pollination
• For fertilisation to happen, the male and female

gametes need to meet and fuse to form a zygote.
• For the male gamete to reach the female gamete in the

ovary, the pollen grains have to be transferred from the
anther to the stigma.
• This is called pollination.
• Pollen grains can either be transferred within the same

flower or plant (self-pollination) or between flowers of
different plants (cross-pollination).

18.3 Pollination
Self-pollination and cross-pollination

18.3 Pollination
Advantages of Cross-Pollination over Self

Pollination
Self-pollination:
• The offspring are weaker and less adaptable to changes in
environment.
Cross-pollination:
• It restores the vigour of a species.
• The offspring produced may have valuable qualities from both
parents.
• Abundant and more viable seeds.
• More varieties of offspring can be produced so as to increase
• chances of survival in changing environments.

18.3 Pollination
Features Favouring Cross-Pollination
• Dioecious plants bear either male or female flowers

e.g. papaya.
• In many plants with bisexual flowers, the anthers and
the stigmas may mature at different times; e.g.
avocado, soursop, custard apple
• Plants with bisexual flowers may have their stigmas
situated some distance away from the anthers so as to
render self-pollination unlikely; e.g. cordia.

18.3 Pollination

18.3 Pollination
Insect-pollinated flower

18.3 Pollination
Wind-pollinated flower

18.4 Fertilisation and Post-Fertilisation

Changes
■ describe the process of fertilisation in a flower; and
■ describe post-fertilisation changes in a flower

18.4 Fertilisation and post-fertilisation changes
The following steps in a flower describe how the male gamete in

the pollen grain reaches the female gamete in the ovule:
1. The pollen grain germinates in response to sugary fluid secreted by
mature stigma. A pollen tube grows out from each pollen grain.
2. Cytoplasm and two nuclei (pollen tube nucleus and generative
nucleus) pass into pollen tube.
3. The growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the pollen tube
nucleus.
4. Enzymes are secreted to digest tissue of stigma and style as pollen
tube grows.
5. The pollen tube penetrates right through the style as it grows and
enters the ovule through the micropyle (an opening in the ovule
wall)
6. Along the way, the generative nucleus divides to form 2 male,
nonmotile gametes. The pollen tube nucleus soon disintegrates.

Process of fertilisation in a flower

Post-fertilisation changes in a flower

18.5 Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

■ describe fruit structure including adaptations for
seed dispersal.

18.5 Dispersal of fruits and seeds
• The main function of the fruit is to protect the seeds during

their development, and to aid in their dispersal.
• Plants disperse seeds for the following reasons:

▫ to avoid overcrowding and competition for resources with the
parent plants
▫ to enable the plants to colonise new and favourable habitats,
▫ to reduce the spread of diseases.
• Fruits and seeds make use of external agents to disperse them

to locations far away from the parent plant and they have
developed different structural adaptations for the different
methods of dispersal.

Dispersal by Animals
Succulent fruits
• Most succulent fruits are edible. They are also scented and have
brightly coloured skins to attract animals such as birds, bats,
etc.
• They can either have large seeds or small seeds.
Dry fruits
• Unlike fleshy fruits, dry fruits do not attract animals. Some
possess hook-like structures which adhere onto the fur or skin
of animals when they brush past the plants.

Love grass is a dry fruit.
Examples of succulent fruits

Dispersal by Explosive Mechanism
• Some fruits do not rely on external agents to

disperse their seeds. When the fruits dry up,
they burst open with great force to throw out
the seeds.
• This is also called a self-dispersal mechanism.
• Example – beans and peas of the legume family.
• They usually split along the lines of dehiscence.

Dispersal by Wind
• Fruits and seeds dispersed by wind are small and light so that
they can be readily blown away by the wind.
• Other special adaptations for wind dispersal include wing-like
structures (e.g. shorea) and a parachute of fine hairs (e.g.
oleander) to increase air resistance and buoyancy in air.

Dispersal by Water
• Fruits and seeds dispersed by water are adapted for floating,

allowing them to be carried away by water currents in the
oceans and rivers.
• A common example is the coconut.

18.6 Germination of Seeds

• ■ describe the structure of a dicotyledonous seed;
and
• ■ describe the process of germination in a seed

A typical dicotyledonous seed contains

the following structures:
• Embryo – Contains a plumule

(developing shoot), radicle (developing
root) and two cotyledons (hence the
term dicotyledonous). Cotyledons, or
seed leaves, contain the food store of
the seed.
• Hilum – A scar on the seed, which
indicates the position of attachment of
the seed to the pod.
• Testa – The seed coat which encloses
and protects the seed.
• Micropyle – A small opening in the testa.
During germination, water enters the
seed through this opening.

Seed Dormancy
• Dormancy is the failure of seeds to germinate as

soon as they are shed, even when conditions are
ideal. Seeds can remain dormant for months or even
years.
• Dormant seeds are protected by the hard testa, and
can withstand adverse external conditions. This
ensures that seeds germinate during a season
favourable for growth.

Stages of Germination
• Germination is the onset of growth of the embryo.

• The first step in germination is the absorption of
water by the seed. This causes the seed to swell and
the testa to burst.
• The testa also becomes more permeable to oxygen.
• Water activates the enzymes in the cotyledons so
that they can digest the stored nutrients within the
cotyledons.

Products of digestion of stored nutrients in a germinating

seed
(a) At the start of germination, water enters through the micropyle and activates
the enzymes to convert complex food stores to simple, soluble food. (b) Glucose
and oxygen enable aerobic respiration, releasing energy for the growth of the
embryo.

Changes in dry mass of a germinating seed

Types of Germination
There are two types of germination:
• Epigeal germination where the cotyledons are carried above
the soil, e.g. kidney bean, sunflower, castor oil.
• Hypogeal germination where the cotyledons remain below
the surface of the soil, e.g. gungo pea, maize.
Epigeal germination of sunflower

Conditions for Germination
Sufficient water
• activates the enzymes in the seed
• transports soluble end products of digestion from cotyledons to
growing regions (roots and shoots) (translocation)
Adequate oxygen supply
• is required for aerobic respiration to produce energy
• needed for activities taking place in the seed
Suitable temperature
• The temperature range within which a seed will germinate
varies with different types of seeds. The right temperature is
crucial for germination as temperature affects the rate of
enzymatic reactions
• For most plants in the tropics, 25 °C is suitable.

Conditions for Germination
Other Conditions
• some can only germinate in darkness, while others require light.
• some need a period of exposure to cold.
• others must pass through the digestive system of an animal.
• some only germinate after a forest fi re burns the testa.
• some requires microorganisms to breakdown the testa before it
can germinate.

Key Concepts
Asexual Reproduction
• Plants carry out asexual reproduction by growing new
daughter plants from buds found on any part of the plant
other than the seeds.
• Specialised storage organs (rhizomes, tubers and bulbs)
enable plants to survive through harsh seasons and grow
again when conditions are favourable.
• Artificial methods of propagating plants include the use of
cuttings, layering and grafting. Such methods help to increase
the yield of desirable crops.
• Tissue culture or micropropagation, enables plants to be
multiplied rapidly by growing buds or plant tissue in special
media to induce the formation of shoots.

Key Concepts
Flowers and Reproduction
• Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
• Male gametes are contained in pollen grains, female gametes
are found in ovules.
• Plants are able to self-pollinate, or self-fertilize. Most plants
have adaptations which favour cross-pollination, so as to
increase the genetic variation and adaptive ability of the
offspring.
• Pollen can be transferred from one flower to another with the
aid of insects or wind.
• The male gamete is transported by the pollinator to the ovule,
and fertilises the ovum inside.
• The fertilised ovule becomes a seed, while the ovary becomes
the fruit. The rest of the flower either withers or is adapted to
aid in dispersal.
Key Concepts
Seed Germination
• The seed is protected by a testa with a small hole called the
micropyle through which water enters during germination.
• The embryo is made up of a radicle (embryonic root) and a
plumule (embryonic shoot), with one or two cotyledons
and/or endosperm as the food stores.
• The conditions for germination are sufficient water, oxygen,
and a suitable temperature.
• As the seed germinates, the dry mass decreases at first due to
tissue respiration to provide energy for growth. When the first
leaves develop, photosynthesis occurs and the dry mass
increases.

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Chapter 18 – Reproduction

18.1 Asexual Reproduction in Plants

You should be able to:

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Natural Vegetative Propagation in Flowering

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• Many plants develop specialised organs with buds and a store

• During harsh environmental conditions such as winter

• When conditions are favourable, the stored food will be used

• This is called perennation, and the storage organs are known

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Examples of storage organs modified from the shoots, stems and

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Artificial propagation of Plants

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Budding and grafting

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Tissue culture and micropropagation

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Advantages of tissue culture:

Disadvantages of tissue culture:

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

18.2 Structure of a Flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• In most cases, flowers are not borne singly but are

• Flowers can be bisexual or hermaphrodite (contains

• If male and female flowers are borne on separate

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• For fertilisation to happen, the male and female

• For the male gamete to reach the female gamete in the

• Pollen grains can either be transferred within the same

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Self-pollination and cross-pollination

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Advantages of Cross-Pollination over Self

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Features Favouring Cross-Pollination

• Dioecious plants bear either male or female flowers

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

18.4 Fertilisation and Post-Fertilisation

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

The following steps in a flower describe how the male gamete in

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Process of fertilisation in a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Post-fertilisation changes in a flower

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

18.5 Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

• The main function of the fruit is to protect the seeds during

• Plants disperse seeds for the following reasons:

• Fruits and seeds make use of external agents to disperse them

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

UNIT II PART C – PLANT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Love grass is a dry fruit.