Lecture 4

Chapter 3
A Trio of Needs

• Another framework for organizing human needs is known as the trio of needs: the needs for power,
affiliation, and achievement
• Power
• The power need is an individual’s desire to control his or her environment. It includes the need to
control other persons and various objects. This need appears to be closely related to the ego need,
in that many individuals experience increased self-esteem when they exercise power over objects or
people
• Affiliation
• Affiliation is a well-researched social motive that significantly influences consumer behavior. The
affiliation need is very similar to Maslow’s social need and suggests that behavior is strongly
influenced by the desire for friendship, acceptance, and belonging.
• Achievement
• Individuals with a strong achievement need often regard personal accomplishment as an end in
itself. They are self-confident, enjoy taking calculated risks, actively research their environments, and
value feedback, often in the form of monetary rewards.
The Measurement of Motives

• How are motives identified? How are they measured? How do researchers know which motives are responsible
for certain kinds of behavior? These are difficult questions to answer because motives are hypothetical
constructs; that is, they cannot be seen or touched, handled, smelled, or otherwise tangibly observed
• Self-Reporting
• Self-reported measures of motives consist of written statements which ask respondents to indicate how relevant
each statement is to them. The researchers administering these measures politely ask respondents not to think
too much before providing their answers, because, if they do so, they might figure out what the statements
measure and not answer honestly.
• Qualitative Research
• Frequently, respondents may be unaware of their motives, or may be unwilling to reveal them when asked
directly. In such situations, researchers use qualitative research to delve into the consumer’s unconscious or
hidden motivations. Many qualitative methods also termed projective techniques because they require
respondents to interpret stimuli that do not have clear meanings, based on the assumption that the subjects will
“reveal” or “project” their subconscious, hidden motives onto the ambiguous stimuli.
• Motivational Research
• The term motivational research, which should logically include all types of research into human motives, has
become a “term of art.” It refers to qualitative studies conducted by Dr. Ernest Dichter in the 1950s and 1960,
which were designed to uncover consumers’ subconscious or hidden motivations.
The Nature and Theories of Personality

• Personality consists of the inner psychological characteristics that both determine and reflect how we
think and act
The Facets of Personality
Personality Reflects Individual Differences
• Because the inner characteristics that constitute an individual’s personality are a unique combination of
factors, no two individuals are exactly alike. Nevertheless, many individuals may possess a single or even
a few personality characteristics, but not others
• Personality Is Consistent and Enduring
• Generally, an individual’s personality tends to be both consistent and generally enduring. Indeed, the
sibling who comments that her sister “has always cared a great deal about her clothes from the time she
was a toddler” is supporting the contention that personality has both consistency and endurance.
• Personality May Change
• Although personality is generally enduring, under certain circumstances, personalities change. For
instance, major life events, such as marriage, the birth of a child, the death of a parent, or a change of
job and/or profession strongly affect personality
• Theories of Personality
• There are three major theories of personality: (1) Freudian theory, (2) neo-Freudian theory, and (3) trait theory. We
have chosen them over other theories because each has played a role in the study of the relationship between
consumer behavior and personality
• Freudian Theory
• The premise of Freudian theory is that unconscious needs or drives, especially sexual and other biological drives, are
at the heart of human motivation and personality. Freud constructed his theory on the basis of patients’ recollections
of early childhood experiences, analysis of their dreams, and the specific nature of their mental and physical
adjustment problems
• Neo-Freudian Personality Theory
• Neo-Freudian theory maintains that, in addition to Freud’s concepts, social relationships play a crucial role in the
development of personality
• Karen Horney was also interested in anxiety and studied the impact of child–parent relationships on the individual’s
desire to reduce feelings of anxiety. Horney proposed that individuals be classified into three personality groups:
• 1. Compliant individuals are those who move toward others and wish to be loved, wanted, and appreciated.
• 2. Aggressive individuals are those who move against others and desire to excel and win admiration.
• 3. Detached individuals are those who move away from others and seek independence, selfreliance, self-sufficiency,
and freedom from obligations.
• Trait Theory
• Trait theory represents a departure from the qualitative, nonempirical approaches of the Freudian and
neo-Freudian movements. Trait theory focuses on empirical measures of personality in terms of specific
psychological characteristics, called “traits.”
• Personality Traits and Consumer Behavior
• Consumer Innovators and Innovativeness
• Innovators are the first to try new products, product line extensions, and services because they are open
to new ideas and practices.
• Innovativeness is the degree of a consumer’s willingness to adopt new products and services shortly after
the products are introduced. One study discovered four motivational factors that inspire consumer
innovativeness:
• 1. Functional factors reflect interest in the performance of an innovation.
• 2. Hedonic factors relate to feeling gratified by using the innovation.
• 3. Social factors reflect the desire to be recognized by others because of one’s pursuit of innovations.
• 4. Cognitive factors express the mental stimulation experienced by using an innovation.
Product and Brand Personification

• we introduced the notion of “product personality.” Brand personification occurs when consumers attribute human traits or
characteristics to a brand. A “brand personality” provides an emotional identity for a brand, which produces sentiments and
feelings toward the brand among consumers
• One study investigated the relationship between brand personality and two human characteristics: 1. Attachment anxiety—the
degree to which people are concerned about whether they are worthy of love. 2. Avoidance anxiety—one’s view of others in the
context of attachment
• Product Personality and Gender
• A product’s personality frequently endows products and brands with gender. For instance, Celestial Seasonings’ Tracy Jones was
given a feminine persona, whereas Mr. Coffee was given a masculine personality. Products’ assigned genders vary by culture: In
certain cultures, consumers may perceive coffee and toothpaste to be masculine products, whereas bath soap and shampoo are
viewed as feminine
• Product Personality and Geography
• Consumers associate some brands with geographic locations (e.g., Buxton Natural Mineral Water, a brand owned by Nestlé
Waters, and sourced from the ancient and picturesque town of Buxton in the heart of England), and such associations often
enhance the memory and the likeability of these brands
• Website Personality
• As consumers navigate the Internet, many of them become emotionally attached to certain websites. A recent study identified
four personality characteristics of websites: (1) intelligent (i.e., searchable, comprehensive, fast, and concise); (2) fun (i.e.,
colorful, attractive, interactive, and dynamic); (3) organized; and (4) sincere (i.e., straightforward and down-to-earth).52 These
finding suggest that incorporating personality traits into the design of websites can generate more favorable attitudes among
visitors and more clicks on the site’s pages.
The Self and Self-Image

• Self-image represents the way a person views herself or himself. Perceptions of self are often related to the
purchases of products and services, because consumers often select products that are consistent with their
self-images and enhance them
• Consumer behavior researchers identified four components of self-image: 1. Actual self-image is the way
consumers see themselves; 2. Ideal self-image is how consumers would like to see themselves; 3. Social self-
image is how consumers feel others see them; and 4. Ideal social self-image is how consumers would like
others to see them
• The Extended Self
• Consumers’ possessions can confirm or extend their self-images. For instance, acquiring a sought after pair
of “vintage” Levi jeans might enrich a teenager’s self-image, because she might see herself as being more
desirable, fashionable, and successful when she wears those pants. Researchers suggested that possessions
are extensions of self in the following ways:5
• 1. Actually, by allowing the person to do things that otherwise would be very difficult or impossible to
accomplish (e.g., problem solving by using a computer).
• 2. Symbolically, by making the person feel better (e.g., being considered the “best dressed” at work).
• 3. Conferring status or rank, for example, being an art collector and owning a rare and wellknown
masterpiece.
• 4. Feelings of immortality by leaving valuable bequests after death