Developing and Conducting

Job Analysis for Your

Organization

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 Learning Objectives
• Explain the purpose of job analysis and job
descriptions
• Differentiate between various methods of job
analysis
• Collect appropriate information
• Write clear and concise job descriptions
• Recognize the requirements for job
descriptions set forth in wage and
employment laws

2
 INTRODUCTION
• Most organizations set wages based
upon an internal job structure. They use
one of two methods to arrive at this
structure.
– Formal job evaluation

OR
 
– Informal job comparisons
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 OVERVIEW OF THE JOB
EVALUATION PROCESS
There are 5 steps in the job evaluation process:
1. Define the jobs
2. Decide which factors are most valuable to
the organization
3. Rank the jobs in the organization based on
the factors chosen
4. Set up the job structure
5. Price the job structure
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 Step 1: Define the jobs

A job is a grouping of work tasks. The

process of defining these tasks is called
job analysis
The information
Job Analysis
obtained in job
•Collect information on job content
analyses is recorded in
•Focus on what workers must do to perform successfully
the precise language of
a job description.

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Step 2: Decide which factors are most
valuable to the organization

Now you must decide what the

organization “is paying for.” That is, what
factor or factors make one job more
valuable to the company than another.
These are called the compensable
factors, which are the yardsticks used to
determine the relative position of jobs in
the company hierarchy. Compensable
factors also let employees know what
contributions are rewarded.
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Step 3: Rank the jobs in the
organization based upon the factors
chosen

Jobs with more compensable factors

should be placed higher than those with
less compensable factors. This step is
the heart of the job evaluation process.

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 Step 4: Set up the job structure

• Choose people to make the decisions.

• Reach and record the decisions.
• Set up the job hierarchy.

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 Step 5: Price the job structure
This will give you a wage structure, a range of
rates for job classifications. All but very small
organizations rely on wage structures when
setting pay.

(Strictly speaking, setting a wage structure is

not part of job evaluation, since more than just
job structure goes into wage decisions. Labor
market rate information must also be included.)
 

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We will now examine the first step in the
job evaluation process ― job analysis

JOB ANALYSIS

The job evaluation process begins with

gathering information about jobs.

Failure to secure complete job facts is a primary

reason for job evaluation failure!

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Later steps in the job evaluation
process are virtually impossible without
adequate job information.

For job evaluation to work, you must be

able to distinguish one job from another.
Usually you use work activities and
worker characteristics to separate
positions from one another
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 Uses of Job Analysis

The primary use of the information collected

from job analysis is job evaluation, however, it
may also be used for:
• recruitment, selection, and placement
• training
• organization planning and job design
• grievance settlement

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Recruitment, selection, and placement
For recruitment and selection you must know what
worker characteristics are required by the job.
Training
For training you must know what knowledge and skills
an employee needs to learn in order to be successful
on the job.

Job design requires identifying the rewards employees

receive for doing the job.

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Grievance Settlement

Grievance settlement requires detailed

knowledge of what the job requires.
Knowing exactly what tasks someone is
expected to do in a particular position –
both the mental and physical demands – is
essential to job-to-job comparison, and to
the mediation and resolution of the
complaint.
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Although the standard job analysis
process (designed for job evaluation)
should be as thorough as possible,
sometimes it may be necessary to
conduct a separate job analysis for a
different use.

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Beginnings of Job Analysis
• The United States Department of Labor
(DOL) led in the development of the
conventional approach to job evaluation. It
encouraged job analysis by helping
employers install their own programs.
• The DOL also has published two guides on
job analysis
– The Guide for Analyzing Jobs (in 1942) 
– The Handbook for Analyzing Jobs (in 1972

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 Methods of Job Analysis

• There is no one way to study jobs.

Several methods of job analysis now
exist, but each leaves something to be
desired.

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DOL 1946 method
The job analysis formula outlined by the DOL
in 1946 is a simplified but complete method of
obtaining information on work activities. The
formula consists of four points:
In fact, providing the what,
DOL 1946 Method
how and why of each task
1. What the worker does
and of the total job should
2. How he or she does it
constitute a functional
3. Why he or she does it
description of work activities
4. The skill involved in doing it for compensation purposes.
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DOL 1972 method

By 1972, this formula had been

expanded by the DOL to encompass
five points. Worker traits represents an
additional type of job information.

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 DOL 1972 Method

1. Worker Functions: the relationship of the worker to data, people, and

things
 

2. Work Fields: the techniques used to complete the tasks of the job. Over
100 such fields have been identified. This descriptor also includes the
machines, tools, equipment, and work aids that are used in the job.

3. Materials, Products, Subject Matter, and/or Services: the outcomes of

the job or the purpose of performing the job
4. Worker Traits: the aptitudes, educational and vocational training, and
personal traits required of the worker

5. Physical Demands: job requirements such as strength, observation, and

talking. This descriptor also includes the physical environment of the work.

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The McCormick method
E.J. McCormick then classified job
descriptors as:
McCormick Method

1. Work Activities:
• Job-oriented
•Worker-oriented

2. Machines, Tools, Equipment

3. Work Performed
4. Job Context
5. Personnel Requirements

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 His method flows from his model of the
operational functions basic to all jobs:
• sensing (information receiving)
• information storage
• information processing
• decision and action (physical control or
communication)

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Why All These Descriptors?
• Although interesting approaches, none of these
models give the rationale for obtaining all these job
descriptors. The grounds for collecting some of the
information are not clear. For example, are worker
behaviors synonymous with work activities? We
believe they are separate concepts.

Work Activities Worker Behaviors

•Not all pertinent to

•Formal work-
work goals
devoted acts
  •Informal activities
 

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Systems Exchange Method

Since the job is the connection between the

organization and the employee, we
recommend using a job analysis model based
upon this connection.

Both the organization and the employee

contribute to the job and expect to receive
something from it. This dual-exchange model
is illustrated below.
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25
The vertical exchange
• The person brings his or her abilities and effort
to the job (cell 1).
• These are used to perform activities, which are
divided into physical, mental and interactional
types (cell 3). 
• The results, for the person, are the rewards
and satisfaction received from working on the
job (cell 5). These rewards can be both
intrinsic and extrinsic.
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The horizontal exchange
• The organization brings to the job resources needed to
perform the job and ways to do the job that coordinate
with organizational needs; the latter are perceived as
constraints (cell 2). 
• These resources and constraints determine the way the
job activities (cell 3) are carried out. 
• The organizational results are some product created or
service performed by the employee. They are the purpose
for the job. These outcomes are in the form of a change in
data, people, and/or objects (cell 4). These results can be
defined in terms of quantity, quality and time.

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 This model suggests that information
(descriptors of jobs) can be collected
on:
• worker requirements of the job (cell 1)
• organizational context of the job (cell 2)
• activities of the job (cell 3)
• purpose of the job (cell 4)
• rewards of the job to the worker (cell 5)
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 Levels of Job Analysis
• By titling the concept we are discussing
as job analysis, we imply that the unit of
analysis is the job. Other levels of
analysis can be used, however.
• The lowes t level is the employee
attributes. These are the knowledge,
skills and abilities required by the job

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One level up is the element. An element is
the smallest division of work activity. It may
even be used to describe singular motions,
often used in motion and time studies.

The next level is the task, a discrete unit of

work performed by an individual. A task
consists of a sequence of activities that
completes a work assignment.

When sufficient tasks accumulate to justify

the employment of a worker, a position
exists. There are as many positions as
employees in an organization.

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 A job is a group of positions that are
identical in their major or significant
tasks. They are sufficiently alike, in other
words, to justify being covered by a
single analysis and description. One
person or many may be employed on the
same job.

Jobs found in more than one

organization are termed occupations

Finally, occupations grouped by function are

usually referred to as job families.
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How detailed should job analysis be?
The unit of analysis used in practice differs
among organizations. The more detailed the
analysis, the more likely that differences will be
found. Research has shown that jobs can be
similar or dissimilar at different levels of
analysis.

Thus, the level or unit of analysis chosen may

influence the decision of whether the work is
similar or dissimilar. This is important because
equal pay laws requires jobs that are
substantially equal to be paid the same.
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 JOB ANALYSIS AND THE LAW
Equal Pay Act of 1963
The Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA) was
passed as an amendment to the Fair
Labor Standards Act.

The EPA prohibits wage differentials between

men and women employed by the same
establishment in jobs that require equal skill,
effort and responsibility, and that are performed
under similar working conditions.

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The EPA requires that all
three factors (skill, effort,
and responsibility) must be
substantially equal for the
jobs to be adjudged equal.
Likewise, working conditions
must differ significantly if
pay differentials are to be
justified. Actually, case law
has accepted “substantial
equality” between jobs as
sufficient for equal pay.

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A comparison between the male and
female jobs is done by examining both
job descriptions that were developed
through job analysis. If this examination
shows that the tasks are the same or
substantially similar, then the jobs' pay
need to be equalized.

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The Americans with Disabilities Act
Perhaps a major legal reason for
conducting job analysis is the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).

The ADA requires employers to consider for

hire or continued employment any person who
can perform the “essential elements” of the job.

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• The ADA assumes that if the person
can perform the essential tasks or
elements of the job, then the
employer can provide “reasonable
accommodation” to the employee so
that he/she can perform the job.
• Since the passage of the ADA, many
organizations have begun to place a
statement of the job’s essential tasks
in all job descriptions. This aids with
hiring and placement decisions.

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Getting Familiar with the Law

The EPA and the ADA are federal laws that

prohibit discrimination. These laws have a direct
impact on compensation and employment
practices. You should take some time to become
more familiar with these laws in order to
understand how these laws affect your
organization.

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 Does job analysis lead to
discrimination?
• Since job analysis is supposed to be a descriptive
process there should be little chance for
discrimination to take place. But since humans collect
the information, there is always the possibility that the
gender of the job incumbent and/or the job analyst
can influence the data collection. This possibility has
been investigated, with most studies finding that job
analysis does not involve much discrimination.
However, one study had male and females analyze
jobs and discovered that male analysts tended to
describe a task in sexist terms that the female
analysts did not use
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• Collecting information. One study examined whether men
and women described their jobs differently. Incumbents of
the same job title were asked to describe their activities,
decisions and interactions. The responses were content-
analyzed. Major differences were found in the words men
and women used to describe their activities. These
differences were found to be detrimental to women in that
the words women used were evaluated lower. It may be
important, then, to look at how job descriptions have been
developed for women's jobs to see if they are ready to be
used for job evaluation.

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• In the end, studies show that the
amount of information is a major
variable in whether the sex of the
person being analyzed enters into
decision making.
In order to reduce discrimination,
make sure to collect sufficient
information.
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 Who Should Conduct Job
Analysis?
Keeping discrimination issues in mind,
who should conduct job analysis?

Job analysts
Employees, supervisors and human resource
specialists perform the tasks of collecting and
analyzing job information.

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• Employees. Since employee acceptance is a priority,
involving employees is important. Job incumbents also
have the most intimate, and perhaps most accurate,
information. But getting individual employees to present
their job information in a manner consistent with data from
other employees is difficult.

Supervisors. One might imagine supervisors to be a good

source of job information, but they may not be extremely
reliable. Often supervisors do not really know what it is
their employees do. Furthermore, employees and
supervisors rarely agree as to the contents of jobs.

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• Job analysts. These are individuals who have
been trained to collect job information. They
know what to look for and what questions to ask.
They also know how to standardize the
information and the language employed. People
with various educational backgrounds have
been trained as job analysts. Most organizations
train their own job analysts by having them work
with experienced analysts. Experience suggests
that limited training suffices to provide these
skills.

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Training process
• Some organizations place new personnel staff as
job analysts as an early assignment. This
approach permits new incumbents to learn
something about the organization's work and
creates a pool of trained analysts.
• When supervisors and job incumbents are used in
job analysis, additional training is required; but as
we repeatedly emphasize, involvement by
employees and supervisors increases the
usefulness and acceptance of the data.

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 Methods of Obtaining Job
Information
• We have discussed the descriptors, the
level of analysis, and the job analysts.
Now we must determine which method
should be used to collect the job
information.

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The conventional approach
The traditional approach is to collect
job information by observing and/or
interviewing employees. Then job
descriptions are written in essay form.
This approach focuses on work
activities as the primary job descriptor.

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Responsibilities and duties. It is
important to beware of two commonly
used terms: responsibilities and duties.
While job descriptions are often
organized around these concepts, these
terms are NOT useful in identifying job
content. Both terms move the analyst
away from thinking about what is done
and how.
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 When responsibilities and duties are used to
create job descriptions the:
• job incumbent is left with some vague statement
about why he/she is doing something, but little
knowledge of what it is or how to do it
• supervisor has little information about the activities of
the jobs, thus determining performance levels is
difficult
• job evaluator has a collection of words that provide
little help in determining the relative worth of jobs in
the organization
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 It is this kind of job description that has led many
personnel directors to decry the futility of job
analysis and job descriptions!

Reliability and validity. Conventional job

analysis is subjective. It depends upon the:
1. Objectivity and ability of the analyst
2. Information provided by job incumbents and
other informants
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• Because the data are non-quantitative,
it is difficult to measure reliability,
consistency and validity. If two or more
individuals analyze the job
independently, validity would rise, but
so would costs.
Perhaps the best option is to obtain
acceptance from both job incumbent and
supervisors before finalizing job descriptions.

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 Quantitative Methods

• In the previous section we discussed

the conventional method of gathering
job information (observation and
interviewing employees). Now, we’ll
focus on 3 methods with a quantitative
focus – all of which involve
questionnaires.

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• In this section, we’ll discuss:
– Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
– Task Inventory
– Functional Job Analysis
– Hay and FES

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 Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ)
• As opposed to the conventional
approach, quantitative job analysis
instruments allow you to measure
reliability, consistency, and validity. The
best known is the Position Analysis
Questionnaire (PAQ) developed by
Ernest J. McCormick, Paul Jeanneret,
and Robert C. Mecham in 1972.
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• Data collected. The PAQ is a
structured job analysis questionnaire
containing 194 items called job
elements. These elements are worker-
oriented and divided into 6 sections.
PAQ Divisions

(1) information input

(2) mental processes
(3) work output (physical activities and tools)
(4) relationships with others
(5) job context (the physical and social environment)
(6) other job characteristics (such as pace and structure)

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Each job element is rated on 6 scales:
• extent of use
• importance
• time
• possibility of occurrence
• applicability
• a special code for certain jobs
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 Ways to analyze PAQ data
• Average individual ratings yield the relative importance of
various job elements (for a specific job). The results can be
summarized as a job description.
• Cluster the elements into a profile rating on a large number
of job dimensions. This permits comparison of one job with
others.
• Make estimates of employee aptitude requirements.
• You can estimate job evaluation points from the items
related to pay.
• Compute an occupational prestige score.
• Analysts can have PAQ data computer-analyzed by
sending the completed questionnaire to PAQ Services.

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Uses for the PAQ
• job evaluation
• selection
• performance appraisal
• assessment-center development
• determination of job similarity
• development of job families
• vocational counseling
• determination of training needs
• job design

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 Task inventory
A second type of questionnaire is a task
inventory. In the task inventory approach:
1. A list of tasks pertinent to a group of jobs is
developed.
2. The tasks involved in the job are rated on a
number of scales by incumbents or supervisors.
3. The ratings are manipulated statistically, usually
by computer, so that a quantitative job analysis is
developed.

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• Any method of job analysis, even
narrative job descriptions, could be
termed a task inventory if an analysis of
the data can provide quantitative
information. Computer programs may
be used to analyze, organize and report
on data from a task inventory.

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 Functional job analysis
• Functional job analysis is usually thought of in
terms of the "data, people, things" hierarchies used
in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles. Developed
by Sidney A. Fine, et. al., the functional job analysis
approach has 5 components:
1. identification of purposes, goals and objectives
2. identification and description of tasks
3. analysis of tasks on 7 scales, including 3 worker-function
scales (one each for data, people, and things)
4. development of performance standards
5. development of training content

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Other Possibilities For Conducting
Job Analysis
• In this section we discussed the
Position Analysis Questionnaire, task
inventories, and functional job analysis.
These structured formats for job
analysis are not the only ones available.

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 Job Descriptions

• Regardless of who collects job

information, the end-product of job
analysis is a standardized job
description.

A job description describes the

job as it is being performed.

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 In a sense, a job description is a snapshot of the
job at the time it was analyzed. Ideally it is written
so that any reader, whether familiar or not with the
job, can "see" what the worker does, how, and
why.
• What the worker does describes the physical, mental and
interactional activities of the job.
• How deals with the methods, procedures, tools and
information sources used to carry out the tasks.
• Why refers to the objective of the work activities; this
should be included in the job summary and in each task
description.

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 Writing job descriptions

You can find an excellent set of guidelines for

writing job descriptions in the U.S.
Department of Labor’s Handbook for
Analyzing Jobs. These guidelines
recommend using:
• a terse, direct style
• an active verb beginning each task
description and the summary statement
• no unnecessary or fuzzy words

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• The basic task statement should be
structured as follows:
 
Rule Example

Present-tense active verb collects

Immediate object of the verb credit information

Infinitive phrase showing the objective to determine credit rating

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• The easiest way to write accurate job
descriptions is to select only active
verbs that permit the reader to see
someone actually doing something.

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 • Some assistance. A useful resource for writing job
descriptions is ERI’s Salary Assessor® software. It
contains a database of more than 4,500 ready-made
job descriptions. Please take some time to use it
now.
Step-by-Step
How to Retrieve ERI Position Descriptions

Step 1. Load the Salary Assessor program: DLC Wizard users can click on Analysis below. All others can download this program
from the Instructions page of this course.

Step 2. Select a Position. Select Edit | Job/Position. From the ‘Enter New Position’ dialogue box, click to select the desired position
in the list, then click the OK button. The selected position’s description will appear in a separate window at the bottom of your screen.

Step 3. Adjust the material included in each description: Select Description | Options | Include All to view all possible
categories of information, including:
•the DOT code
•alternate titles
•specific vocational preparation
•mental demands
•physical demands

Step 4. You can rewrite the description yourself for your own records and reports.

For more information about using this software, DLC Wizard users can click on Tutorial below. Others can download the Salary
Assessor Tutorial from the Instructions page of this course.

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Contents of job descriptions

• Conventional job descriptions typically

include 3 broad categories of
information:
1.identification
2.work-performed
3.performance requirements

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• Identification section. The
identification sections distinguishes the
job under study from other jobs. It
should include:
– industry and company size to describe the
organization
– a job title to identify the job
– the number of incumbents
– a job number, if available
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• Work-performed section. Begin the work-performed
section with a job summary that describes the
purpose and content of the job. Then follow the
summary by an orderly series of paragraphs that
describe each of the tasks.
• The balance of the work-performed section presents
from 3 to 8 tasks in chronological order, or in order of
the time it takes to complete each task. Introduce
each task with a flag statement that shows generally
what is being done followed by a detailed account of
what, how and why it is done. Then follow each task
with the percentage of total job time it requires.
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• Job analysts tend to write the summary statement after
completing the work-performed section. Analysts often
find that the flag statements for the various tasks provide
much of the material for the summary statement.

Performance requirements section. This section sets

out the worker attributes required by the job. It is also
called the job specification. (Job descriptions used for job
evaluation may or may not include this section.) Some
argue that worker attributes must be inferred from work
activities; but this would require the job analyst not only to
collect and analyze job information, but also to make
judgments about job difficulty.

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Managerial job descriptions
• Managerial job descriptions differ from non-
managerial job descriptions in what are called scope
data. For example, financial and organizational data
are used to locate managerial jobs in the hierarchy.
• The identification section of managerial job
descriptions is usually more elaborate and may
include the reporting level and the functions of jobs
supervised directly and indirectly. The number of
people directly and indirectly supervised may be
included, as well as department budgets and
payrolls.

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• The work-performed section of managerial
job descriptions, like that of non-managerial
job descriptions, includes the major tasks but
gives special attention to organization
objectives.
Writers of managerial job descriptions need to
remember that "is responsible for…..” does not
tell the reader what the manager does.

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 The examples below illustrate the difference
between managerial and non-managerial job
descriptions.
JOB TITLE: Sales Clerk
JOB SUMMARY: Serves customers, receives and straightens stock, and
inspects dressing rooms.
TASKS
1. Serves customers to make sales and to provide advice: Observes customers entering store, approaches them and asks
to help, locates desired articles of clothing, and guides customers to dressing rooms. Decides when to approach
customers and which articles of clothing to suggest. Sometimes gets suggestions from other sales clerks or supervisor.
Rings up purchases on cash register and takes cash or check or processes credit card. Decides whether check or
credit-card acceptance is within store policy. (80%)

2. Receives and arranges stock to attractively exhibit merchandise: Unpacks boxes, counts items, and compares with
purchase orders. Reports discrepancies to supervisor. Arranges and inspects new and old merchandise on racks and
counters. Removes damaged goods and changes inventory figures. Decides where to place items in the store, within
guidelines of supervisor. Twice a year helps with taking inventory by counting and recording merchandise. (15%)

3. Inspects dressing rooms to keep them neat and discourage shoplifting: Walks through dressing area periodically,
collecting clothing left or not desired. Remains alert to attempts to shoplift clothing from dressing area. Decides when
security needs to be called in. Re-hangs merchandise on sales floor. (5%)

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JOB TITLE: Branch Bank Manager
JOB SUMMARY: Promotes bank in community and supervises branch operations and lending activities.
TASKS

1. Promotes bank services in the community to increase total assets of the bank: Engages in and keeps track of community
activities, both commercial and social. Identifies potential customers in community. Analyzes potential customer needs and
prospects, plans sales presentations, and meets with potential customers to persuade them to use bank services. (40%)

2. Supervises branch operation to minimize cost of operation while providing maximum service: Plans work activity of the branch.
Communicates instructions to subordinate supervisors. Observes branch activity. Discusses problems with employees and
decides or helps employees decide course of action. Coordinates branch activities with main office. Performs personnel
activities of hiring, evaluating, rewarding, training, and disciplining employees and financial activities of budgeting and reviewing
financial reports. (35%)

3. Evaluates and processes loan requests to increase revenues of the bank: Reviews and analyzes loan requests for risk. Seeks
further information as appropriate. Approves (or denies) requests that fall within branch lending limits. Prepares reports to
accompany other loan requests to bank loan committee. Keeps up with changes in bank lending policy, financial conditions and
community needs. (25%)

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 Writing style
Careful writing is also a requirement of good job
descriptions. The words used should have only one
possible meaning and must accurately describe
what is being done. Terms should not only be
specific but should also employ language that is as
simple as possible. See the examples above.

When job descriptions are written by different

analysts, coordination and consistency are
essential. These are usually provided by having
some central agency edit the job descriptions.

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 SUMMARY
Wage structures are based on the relationship between jobs
within the organization. In developing a wage structure, you
must first collect information about the jobs. This is the task of
job analysis.

The methods for collecting data about jobs are numerous and
range from very informal to highly structured questionnaires.
Despite the variety, the use of a job analysis interview is still
the major method of obtaining job information. The flexibility
provided outweighs the advantages of consistency and
analytical power found in the more structured techniques.

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The end product of job analysis is a job
description, an instrument that is used by
most aspects of personnel administration. Job
descriptions that have been thoroughly
researched and well written are vital to the
compensation planning and administration
process.

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