COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-1
 A COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
• The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of
data between two parties. Figure 1.2b presents one particular example,
which is communication between a workstation and a server over a public
telephone network.
• Another example is the exchange of voice signals between two telephones
over the same network. The key elements of the model are as follows:
• Source. This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are
telephones and personal computers.
• Transmitter: Usually, the data generated by a source system are not
transmitted directly in the form in which they were generated. Rather, a
transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to
produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort
of transmission system.
• For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device
• such as a personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog
signal that can be handled by the telephone network.
• • Transmission system: This can be a single transmission line or a
complex network connecting source and destination.
• • Receiver: The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system
and converts it into a form that can be handled by the destination device.
For example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network
or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
• • Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.
 Network Criteria

• A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most

important of these are performance, reliability, and security.
• Performance
• Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time
and response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of
a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics:
throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less
delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try
to send more data to the network, we may increase throughput but
we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
• Reliability
• In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the
frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and
the network's robustness in a catastrophe.
• Security
• Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development, and implementing policies
and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.
Terms used in Data Communication
• Data : Data refers to the information or message, which
is present in the form that is agreed upon by user and
creator of data (mostly Digital data)

• Data Communication : is exchange of data between two

devices via some form of transmission medium.
• 1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated.
Popular forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.

• 2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

• 3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

• 4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path

by which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of
transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic
cable, and radio waves.

• 5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

It represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a
protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a
person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
• Protocols
• In computer networks, communication occurs between entities
in different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending
or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply
send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For
communication to occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A
protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.
• Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data,
meaning the order in which they are presented. For example, a simple
protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the sender,
the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream
to be the message itself.
• Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of
bits. How is a particular pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be
taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an address identify
the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
• Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should
be sent and how fast they can be sent. For example, if a sender produces
data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps, the
transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
• Standards
• Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and
competitive market for equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing
national and international interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers,
vendors, government agencies, and other service providers to ensure
• the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and in
international communications.
• Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning
• "by fact" or "by convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by
regulation").
• o De facto. Standards that have not been approved by an organized body
but have been adopted as standards through widespread use are de facto
standards. De facto standards are often established originally by
manufacturers who seek to define the functionality of a new product or
technology.
• o De jure. Those standards that have been legislated by an officially
recognized body are de jure standards.
 Standards Organizations
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO): A federation of
• more than 100 standards organizations throughout the world. If I had
• studied French in high school, I’d probably understand why the acronym
• for International Organization for Standardization is ISO, and not IOS.
• www.iso.org
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI): The official standards
• organization in the United States. ANSI is pronounced AN-see.
www.ansi.org
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): An
international
• organization that publishes several key networking standards — in
particular, the official standard for the Ethernet networking system (known
officially as IEEE 802.3). IEEE is pronounced eye-triple-E. www.ieee.org.
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): The organization responsible
for the protocols that drive the Internet. www.ietf.org
World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): An international organization that
handles the development of standards for the World Wide Web.
www.w3.org
 Topology

• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components
are interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical
and logical topology.
• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a
network.
BUS TOPOLOGY
 RING TOPOLOGY

Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one
node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
• Working of Token passing
• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer
until it reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it
sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
 Transmission Media

Guided Media
This kind of transmission media is also known as wired otherwise bounded media. In
this type, the signals can be transmitted directly & restricted in a thin path through
physical links. The main features of guided media mainly include secure, high-speed,
and used in small distances. This kind of media is classified into three types which are
discussed below.

Unguided Media
It is also known as unbounded otherwise wireless transmission media. It doesn’t
require any physical medium to transmit electromagnetic signals. The main features of
this media are less secure, the signal can be transmitted through air, and applicable for
large distances.
• Twisted Pair Cable
• One of the more commonly used transmission media for network cabling and
telephone systems is twisted-pair cable. Twisted-pair cable consists of one or more
twisted-pair wires bundled together (Figure 8-24). Each twisted-pair wire consists
of two separate insulated copper wires that are twisted together. The wires are
twisted together to reduce noise. Noise is an electri- cal disturbance that can
degrade communications
• UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
• This UTP cable has the capacity to block interference. It doesn’t depend on a
physical guard and used in telephonic applications. The advantage of UTP is a low
cost, very simple to install, and high speed. The disadvantages of UTP is liable to
exterior interference, transmits in fewer distances, and less capacity.
• STP (Shielded Twisted Pair)
• STP cable includes a particular jacket for blocking outside interference. It is used in
rapid data rate Ethernet, in voice & data channels of telephone lines.
• The main advantages of STP cable mainly include good speed, removes crosstalk.
The main disadvantages are hard to manufacture as well as install, It is expensive
and bulky also
Advantages of Twisted-Pair Cable
It is cheap and easy to install.
Greater transmission rate.
Capacity is high.
Disadvantages of Twisted-Pair Cable
Higher attenuation rate.
Shielded cable is costlier than coaxial and unshielded cable.
Useful in a short distance (due to attenuation).
• Coaxial Cable
• This cable contains an external plastic cover and it includes two parallel conductors
where each conductor includes a separate protection cover. This cable is used to
transmit data in two modes like baseband mode as well as broadband mode. This
cable is widely used in cable TVs & analog TV networks.
• The advantages of the coaxial cable include high bandwidth, noise immunity is
good, low cost and simple to install. The disadvantage of this cable is, the failure of
cable can disturb the whole network
• Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax (pronounced KO-ax), consists of a single
copper wire surrounded by at least three layers: (1) an insulating material, (2) a
woven or braided metal, and (3) a plastic outer coating (Figure 8-25).

• Broadband – Transmission of multiple signals is

done simultaneously. This is called broadband
transmission.
• Baseband – Transmission of one signal at one time
is called baseband transmission. It provides high-
speed transmission.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
Transmission speed is high.
Bandwidth is high.
Its shielding is better than twisted pair cable.
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
Expensive than twisted pair.
The entire network can fail if faults are in a single cable.
 10BASE WHAT?
• In reality, the cable designations consist of three parts:
• The first number is the speed of the network in Mbps. So, 10BaseT is for 10 Mbps
• networks (Standard Ethernet), 100BaseTX is for 100 Mbps networks (Fast
Ethernet),
• and 1000BaseT is for 1,000 Mbps networks (Gigabit Ethernet).
• • “Base” (short for “baseband”) indicates the type of network transmission
that the
• cable uses. Baseband transmissions carry one signal at a time and are relatively
• simple to implement. The alternative to baseband is broadband, which can carry
• more than one signal at a time but is more difficult to implement. At one time,
• broadband incarnations of the 802.x networking standards existed, but they have
• all but fizzled due to lack of use.
• • The tail end of the designation indicates the cable type. For coaxial cables, a
• number is used that roughly indicates the maximum length of the cable in hundreds
• of meters. 10Base5 cables can run up to 500 meters. 10Base2 cables can run
• up to 185 meters. (The IEEE rounded 185 up to 200 to come up with the name
• 10Base2.) If the designation ends with a T, twisted-pair cable is used. Other letters
• are used for other types of cables.
• Optical Fibre Cable
• This cable uses the notion of light reflected through a core that is made with
plastic or glass. The core is enclosed with less thick plastic or glass and it is
known as the cladding, used for large volume data transmission.
• The main advantages of this cable include lightweight, capacity & bandwidth
will be increased, signal attenuation is less, etc. The disadvantages are high
cost, fragile, installation & maintenance is difficult and unidirectional.
• Disadvantages of fiber-optic cable are it costs more
than twisted-pair or coaxial cable and can be
difficult to install and modify. Despite these
limitations, many local and long- distance telephone
companies are replacing existing telephone lines
with fiber-optic cables, enabling them to offer fiber
Internet access to home and business users. 
Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable
It provides greater bandwidth.
Faster speed.
Useful in long-distance communication.
It has a lightweight and signals attenuation is also less.
Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable
It is expensive as compared to other media.
It is fragile.
It is unidirectional, if two-way communication is required, then two cables will be required.
Maintenance and installation are difficult.
• Radio Waves – Radio waves are electromagnetic waves. These are omni
directional means they are spread in all directions in free space. Any
sending antenna can send the signals and in air and any receiving antenna
will receive it. It is not necessary to align the antennas. FM radio is an
example of radio waves. Also, it is used in multicasting (one sender and
multiple receivers), cordless phones, television, etc.
• Advantages of Radio Waves
• 1.Covers a large area. 2. Penetrate through walls. 3. High transmission rate.
• Disadvantages of Radio Waves
• 1.Cannot pass through solid objects. 2. Contains Noise. 3. Electromagnetic
Interference.
• Microwaves
• It is a sightline transmission which means the transmitting & receiving antennas
need to align correctly with each other. The distance which is covered through
the signal can be directly proportional to the antenna’s height. The frequency
range of microwaves ranges from 1GHz to 300GHz. These are extensively used
in TV distribution & mobile phone communication
• Terrestrial Microwave – Terrestrial Microwave transmission is based on a
particular geographical area. Data is transmitted from one antenna to another
antenna. It is a unidirectional wave that means data can be sent in both
directions. In this transmission, it is necessary to align the antennas. The
antenna is located in the mountains so that they are in direct sight of each other.
For a shorter distance, it is not much expensive but for long distances it is
expensive.
• Satellite Microwave – Satellite is an object which is used for data transmission.
It is more flexible than the other type of microwave. It covers a very huge area.
It working is also easy to understand. An earth station sends data to the satellite,
then the satellite amplifies the signals and sends it back to the earth station. It is
used for many purposes as it has global coverage. Mobile communication,
weather forecasting, broadcasting different radio/TV signals, etc.
The advantages of Microwave
The satellite covers a large area.
The cost incurred in the transmission is less.
Installation is easy.
The terrestrial microwave is less expensive.
Maintenance of terrestrial microwave is easy as compared to satellite.
The disadvantage of Microwave
Transmission through satellite is very expensive.
Installation is difficult in a satellite.
The maintenance of the satellite is expensive and difficult.
It can contain an intruder and they can also eavesdrop.
Bad weather conditions can hamper the quality and speed of the signal.
The satellite needs continuous monitoring.
• Infrared Waves
• Infrared (IR) waves are used in extremely small distance
communication as they cannot go through obstacles. So it stops
intrusion between systems. The range of frequency of these waves is
300GHz to 400THz. These waves are used in TV remotes,
keyboards, wireless mouse, printer, etc.
• Infrared – Infrared is another wireless transmission media used in
communication. It is used for a short coverage area. It creates a
small network like data transmission between two mobile phones, or
laptops, or a mobile and a laptop, etc. Examples of infrared
transmissions are TV remote, transfer between laptops or cell
phones, etc.
Advantages of Infrared
It is more security due to less area.
Useful in small or closed areas.
Great bandwidth.
The data transfer rate is also very high.
Disadvantages of Infrared
These waves cannot pass through walls.
Interference can be caused by sunlight.
Covers a short-range.
Disturbance can be caused due to other transmissions.
 Line Configuration(Type of Connection)
• A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a
communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
• For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way
to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
• Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link
between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections
use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other
options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible When you
change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing
a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's
control system.

• Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in

which more than two specific devices share a single link.
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously,
it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
 Transmission modes
• Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or
full-duplex
• Simplex:
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way
street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can
only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex
devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only
accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel
to send data in one direction.
• Half-Duplex:
• In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa. The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic
allowed in both directions. the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
• Full-Duplex:
• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and
receive simultaneously . The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with
traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In full-duplex mode,
signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals
going in the other direction.
 Data and Signals

3.47
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 To be transmitted, data must be
transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3.48
 3-1 ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous;
digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on continuous
values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Topics discussed in this section:

Analog and Digital Data

Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

3.49
Note

Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and take
discrete values.

3.50
Note

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite number
of values in a range; digital signals can
have only a limited
number of values.

3.51
Figure 3.1 Comparison of analog and digital signals

3.52
Figure 3.2 A sine wave

3.53
Note

We discuss a mathematical approach to

sine waves in Appendix C.

3.54
 Example 3.1

The power in your house can be represented by a sine wave with a peak amplitude of 155
to 170 V. However, it is common knowledge that the voltage of the power in U.S. homes is
110 to 120 V. This discrepancy is due to the fact that these are root mean square (rms)
values. The signal is squared and then the average amplitude is calculated. The peak value
is equal to 2½ × rms value.

3.55
Figure 3.3 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
but different amplitudes

3.56
 Example 3.2

The voltage of a battery is a constant; this constant value can be considered a sine wave,
as we will see later. For example, the peak value of an AA battery is normally
1.5 V.

3.57
Note

Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.

3.58
Figure 3.4 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
but different frequencies

3.59
Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

3.60
 Example 3.3

The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz. The period of this sine wave can be
determined as follows:

3.61
 Example 3.4

Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

Solution
From Table 3.1 we find the equivalents of 1 ms (1 ms is 10 −3 s) and 1 s (1 s is 106 μs). We
make the following substitutions:.

3.62
 Example 3.5

The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?

Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from the period
(1 Hz = 10−3 kHz).

3.63
Note

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.

Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.

Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
3.64
Note

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.

3.65
Note

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.

3.66
Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,
but different phases

3.67
 Example 3.6

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and
radians?

Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

3.68
Figure 3.6 Wavelength and period

3.69
Figure 3.7 The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave

3.70
 Example 3.7

The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with more
than one sine wave. For example, Figure 3.8 shows three sine waves, each with
different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three spikes in the
frequency domain.

3.71
Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves

3.72
Note

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful

in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.

3.73
Note

According to Fourier analysis, any

composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
Fourier analysis is discussed in Appendix
C.

3.74
 Note

If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals with
discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of sine
waves with continuous frequencies.

3.75
 Example 3.8

Figure 3.9 shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f. This type of signal is not
typical of those found in data communications. We can consider it to be three alarm
systems, each with a different frequency. The analysis of this signal can give us a good
understanding of how to decompose signals.

3.76
Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

3.77
Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and
frequency domains

3.78
 3-3 DIGITAL SIGNALS

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented

by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero
voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than
1 bit for each level.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bit Rate
Bit Length
Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal
Application Layer
3.79
Figure 3.16 Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels

3.80
Note

Appendix C reviews information about

Appendix C reviews information about exponential and logarithmic

exponential andfunctions.
logarithmic functions.

3.81
 Example 3.16

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the
number of bits from the formula

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

3.82
 Example 3.17

A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level? We calculate the
number of bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits.
However, this answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an
integer as well as a power of 2. For this example, 4 bits can represent one level.

3.83
 Example 3.18

Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. What
is the required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one
character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is

3.84
 Example 3.19

A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz

bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest
frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that each sample requires 8 bits. What is
the required bit rate?

Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as

3.85
 Example 3.20

What is the bit rate for high-definition TV (HDTV)?

Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high quality video signals. The HDTV screen is
normally a ratio of 16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels per screen, and the screen is
renewed 30 times per second. Twenty-four bits represents one color pixel.

The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40 Mbps through compression.

3.86
Figure 3.17 The time and frequency domains of periodic and nonperiodic
digital signals

3.87
Figure 3.18 Baseband transmission

3.88
Note

A digital signal is a composite analog signal

with an infinite bandwidth.

3.89
Figure 3.19 Bandwidths of two low-pass channels

3.90
Figure 3.20 Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium

3.91
Note

Baseband transmission of a digital signal

that preserves the shape of the digital
signal is possible only if we have a low-
pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.

3.92
 Example 3.21

An example of a dedicated channel where the entire bandwidth of the medium is used as
one single channel is a LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated channel for
two stations communicating with each other. In a bus topology LAN with multipoint
connections, only two stations can communicate with each other at each moment in time
(timesharing); the other stations need to refrain from sending data. In a star topology
LAN, the entire channel between each station and the hub is used for communication
between these two entities. We study LANs in Chapter 14.

3.93
Figure 3.21 Rough approximation of a digital signal using the first harmonic
for worst case

3.94
Figure 3.22 Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics

3.95
 Note

In baseband transmission, the required

In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit

bandwidth is proportional rate; to the bit rate;

if we
if weneed to send
need to send bits
bits faster, faster,
we need we need
more bandwidth.

more bandwidth.

3.96
Table 3.2 Bandwidth requirements

3.97
 3-6 PERFORMANCE

One important issue in networking is the performance of the network—how good is it?
We discuss quality of service, an overall measurement of network performance, in greater
detail in Chapter 24. In this section, we introduce terms that we need for future chapters.

Topics discussed in this section:

Bandwidth
Throughput
Latency (Delay)
Bandwidth-Delay Product
3.98
 Note

In networking, we use the term bandwidth

in two contexts.
❏ The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

❏ The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.

3.99
 Example 3.42

The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The bandwidth of this line
for data transmission
can be up to 56,000 bps using a sophisticated modem to change the digital signal to
analog.

3.100
 Example 3.43

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth to
8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology as mentioned in Example
3.42.

3.101
 Example 3.44

A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames per
minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput of this
network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

3.102
 Example 3.45

What is the propagation time if the distance between the two points is 12,000 km?
Assume the propagation speed to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a
direct cable between the source and the destination.

3.103
 Example 3.46

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-
mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as shown on the next slide:

3.104
 Example 3.46 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the bandwidth is high, the
dominant factor is the propagation time, not the transmission time. The transmission
time can be ignored.

3.105
 Example 3.47

What are the propagation time and the transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as shown on the next slide.

3.106
 Example 3.47 (continued)

Note that in this case, because the message is very long and the bandwidth is not very
high, the dominant factor is the transmission time, not the propagation time. The
propagation time can be ignored.

3.107
Figure 3.31 Filling the link with bits for case 1

3.108
 Example 3.48

We can think about the link between two points as a pipe. The cross section of the pipe
represents the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe represents the delay. We can say
the volume of the pipe defines the bandwidth-delay product, as shown in Figure 3.33.

3.109
Figure 3.32 Filling the link with bits in case 2

3.110
Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines the

number of bits that can fill the link.

3.111
Figure 3.33 Concept of bandwidth-delay product

3.112
Data Transmission types
 
 
• Serial Transmission
• Data is sent bit by bit from one computer to another in two directions. 
Each bit has a clock pulse rate.  Eight bits are transmitted at a time, with a
start and stop bit known as a parity bit, which is 0 and 1, respectively. 
Data cables are used when transmitting data over a longer distance.  The
data cable has D-shaped 9 pin cable that connects the data in series.
• Categories of Serial Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission – an extra bit is added to each byte to alert
the receiver to the arrival of new data.  0 is used as a start bit, while 1 used
as a stop bit.
• Synchronous transmission – no extra bit is added to each byte.  Data is
transferred in batches, each of which contains multiple bytes.
• Parallel Transmission
• Several bits are transmitted simultaneously with one clock pulse
rate.  It transmits quickly as it utilises several input and output lines
for sending the data.
• It uses a 25-pin port with 17 signal lines and 8 ground lines.  The 17
signal lines are divided as
• 4 lines – initiate handshaking
• 5 lines – communicate and notify errors
• 8 lines – transfer data
• Examples
• One example of serial mode transmission is a connection established
between a computer and a modem using the RS-232 protocol.  An RS-232
cable can accommodate 25 wires, but only two of these wires are for data
transmission; the rest are designated for overhead control signaling.  The
two data wires run using simple serial transmission in either direction.
• An example of parallel mode transmission is a connection established
between a computer and a printer.  Most printers are within 6 meters (about
20 feet) from the transmitting computer, and the slight cost for extra wires
is offset by the added speed gained through parallel transmission of data.
 Types of Computer Network

There are mainly three types of computer networks based on their

size:
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
 Local Area Network (LAN)
• 1. Local area network is a group of computers connected with each
other in a small places such as school, hospital, apartment etc.
2. LAN is secure because there is no outside connection with the
local area network thus the data which is shared is safe on the local
area network and can’t be accessed outside.
3. LAN due to their small size are considerably faster, their speed
can range anywhere from 100 to 100Mbps.
4. LANs are not limited to wire connection, there is a new evolution
to the LANs that allows local area network to work on a wireless
connection.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• MAN network covers larger area by connections LANs to a larger network
of computers. In Metropolitan area network various Local area networks
are connected with each other through telephone lines. The size of the
Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or
town.
 Wide area network (WAN)
• Wide area network provides long distance transmission of data. The size of
the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN. A WAN can cover country,
continent or even a whole world. Internet connection is an example of
WAN. Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections such as
3G, 4G etc.
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.122
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.123
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
2.124
Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.125
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.126
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.127
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.128
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.129
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

Medium
The transmission medium and interface between the devices and the medium.

Line Configuration
The Physical layer connects devices to the medium.
Bits
The data is in the form of stream of bits, which must be encoded into signals
for transmission.
Topology
The connection of devices to make a network is called a Topology. It includes
mesh, ring, bus, and star topology.

2.130
Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.131
 The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Frames
The stream of bits are divided into data units called frames.
Physical Address
A header is added to the frame for defining the physical address of the sender or receiver of
the frame. This is done only if the frames are to be distributed to different systems in the same
network.
Error Control
To prevent duplication of frames, the Data Link Layer use Error Control mechanism. This is
required to detect and retransmit frames that gets damaged or lost in transit. Error Control
adds a trailer to the end of the frame.
Flow Control
To prevent chaotic traffic at the receiver dise, the data link layer has a mechanism known as
Flow Control. This is required only if the data receiving rate of receiver is less than the rate at
which the data is produced.

2.132
Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.133
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.134
 The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

Routing
The Network Layer route the packets to the final destination.
Logical Address
This layer adds a header the packet. A packet crossing network boundaries is
provided with an addressing system. The system helps in distinguishing source and
destination.

2.135
Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.136
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.137
 The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
Service-point address
The Layer includes a header with the address called the port address i.e. service-point
address. The layer transmits the complete message to the correct process.
Segments
Message is divided into segments. Each of these segments contains a sequence number.
The Layer reassemble the message correctly upon arrival. This is to recognize and replace
the packets lost in transmission.
Connection Control
The layer includes,

Connectionless Transport Layer: Each segment is treated as an independent packet.

Connection-Oriented Transport Layer: A connection is made with the layer at the
destination machine. After the connection, the packets are delivered and the connection
is terminated.
Flow Control
Performed end-to-end in this Layer.
Error Control
Error Control performed end-to-end in this Layer. The layer assures that the message
arrives at the receiving layer end without any damage or duplication.
2.138
Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.139
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.140
 The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

Network Dialog Controller

The session layer allows communication between two processes. It establish, maintains
and synchronizes the interaction. The communication occurs in edither half-duplex or
full-duplex.
Synchronization
The Layer adds checkpoints into a stream of data. Let us see an example. If you have a
file of 1000 pages. Add checkpoints at every 100 pages.
If now let us say an error occurs at page 720, then 1-700 pages need not to be
transmitted. Only the pages from 700-800 need to be taken care of and restransmitted.

2.141
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.142
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

Translation
Change the Information like characters and numbers  to stream of bits before
transmission.
Encryption/ Decryption
When the sender transforms original information to another form, it is
called Encryption. This information is sent on the network.
Under Decryption, the updated information is transformed to the actual message.
Compression
Reduce the number of bits with Compression. Useful in transmitting audio, video, etc
over the network

2.143
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.144
 The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.

Network Virtual Terminal

As the name suggests, it allows the user to log on a remote host. For this, the application
terminal creates a remote host.
Email forwarding
The Application Layer allows the mechanism for email-forwarding and storage.
FTAM (File Transfer, Access and Management)
Access file in a remote computer with FTAM. You can retrieve, manage and control files
from/ to remote computer.

2.145
Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.146
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.147
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the TCP/IP
protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.150
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.151
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.152
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.153
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.154
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure
shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the
receiver.

2.155
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.156
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.157
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or router)
has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to
only one link and therefore has only one pair of
addresses. Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure). So each
router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

2.158
Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.159
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three processes
at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port
addresses j and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the receiving
computer. Note that although physical addresses change
from hop to hop, logical and port addresses remain the
same from the source to destination.

2.160
Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.161
Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.162
 Example 2.5

As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit

address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753

A 16-bit port address represented

as one single number.

2.163
Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.164
• TCP/IP model
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
• The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four
layers of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP
model by a single layer called the application layer.
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each
of them provides specific functionality.
• Network layer
• The network layer is where data is addressed, packaged, and routed among
networks.
• Several important Internet protocols operate at the network layer:
• »»Internet Protocol (IP): A routable protocol that uses IP addresses to deliver
• packets to network devices. IP is an intentionally unreliable protocol, so it
• doesn’t guarantee delivery of information.
• »»Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Resolves IP addresses to hardware
• Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, which uniquely identify hardware
• devices.
• »»Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): Sends and receives diagnostic
• messages. ICMP is the basis of the ubiquitous ping command.
• »»Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): Used to multicast messages
• to multiple IP addresses at once.
• Transport layer
• The transport layer is where sessions are established and data packets are
• exchanged between hosts. Two core protocols are found at this layer:
• »»Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): Provides reliable connection-
oriented
• transmission between two hosts. TCP establishes a session between hosts,
• and then ensures delivery of packets between the hosts.
• »»User Datagram Protocol (UDP): Provides connectionless, unreliable,
• one-to-one or one-to-many delivery.
• Application layer
• The application layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to the session, presentation,
• and application layers of the OSI Reference Model. A few of the most popular
• application layer protocols are
• »»HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The core protocol of the
• World Wide Web.
• »»File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol that enables a client to send and
• receive complete files from a server.
• »»Telnet: The protocol that lets you connect to another computer on the
• Internet in a terminal emulation mode.
• »»Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): One of several key protocols that
are
• used to provide email services.
• »»Domain Name System (DNS): The protocol that allows you to refer to other
• host computers by using names rather than numbers.
OSI(Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model
• The OSI model breaks the various aspects of a computer network into
seven distinct layers. These layers are kind of like the layers of an onion:
Each successive layer envelops the layer beneath it, hiding its details from
the levels above.
• The OSI model is a framework into which the various networking
standards can fit. The OSI model specifies what aspects of a network’s
operation can be addressed by various network standards.
• Interfaces Between Layers
• The passing of the data and network information down through the layers
of the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving
device is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent
layers.
• Peer-to-Peer Processes
• At the physical layer, communication is direct: In Figure 2.3, device A sends
a stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher
layers, however, communication must move down through the layers on
device A, over to device B, and then back up through the layers. Each layer
in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just
below it.
 Switching techniques
• In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
• Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.
• Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
• In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
• Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
• A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
• In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
• Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
• Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
• Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
• Circuit establishment
• Data transfer
• Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:
Space Division Switches:
Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single transmission path is
accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate set of crosspoints.
Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A crossbar switch is a metallic
crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be enabled or disabled by a control unit.
The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx crossbar switch
using FPGAs.
Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking switches.
• Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
• Crossbar Switch
• Multistage Switch
• Crossbar Switch
• The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines.
The crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
• Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
• The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is
increased. Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The
solution to this is to use a multistage switch.
• Multistage Switch
• Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the
smaller units and then interconnecting them.
• It reduces the number of crosspoints.
• If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path
• Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
• In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication
channel is dedicated.
• It has fixed bandwidth.
• Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
• Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
• It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds
during which no data can be transmitted.
• It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
• It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data
is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
• In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.
• Message Switching
• Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes
at which it is stored and forwarded.
• In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
• The destination address is appended to the message. Message
Switching provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed
through the intermediate nodes based on the information available in
the message.
• Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
• Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to
the next node. This type of network is known as store and forward
network.
• Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.
Advantages Of Message Switching
Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the efficiency of
using available bandwidth.
Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the nodes.
Message priority can be used to manage the network.
The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to store
the messages until the message is forwarded.
The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.
• Packet Switching
• The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
• The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
• Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
• Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
• All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
• If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
• If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet switching:
It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered as an
independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and switch
uses this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the messages
are sent.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the
nodes.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection between the sender
and receiver.
When a route is established, data will be transferred.
After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the receiver that the
message has been received.
If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the termination.
• Advantages Of Packet Switching:
• Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not
require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet switching
technique is a cost-effective technique.
• Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
• Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use the
same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
• Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
• Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications
that require low delay and high-quality services.
• The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
• If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of
lost packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are
nor recovered.
 Multiplexing

• Why Multiplexing?
• The transmission medium is used to send the signal from sender to
receiver. The medium can only have one signal at a time.
• If there are multiple signals to share one medium, then the medium must be
divided in such a way that each signal is given some portion of the
available bandwidth. For example: If there are 10 signals and bandwidth of
medium is100 units, then the 10 unit is shared by each signal.
• When multiple signals share the common medium, there is a possibility of
collision. Multiplexing concept is used to avoid such collision.
• Transmission services are very expensive.
Frequency-division Multiplexing (FDM)
It is an analog technique.
Frequency Division Multiplexing is a technique in which the available bandwidth of a
single transmission medium is subdivided into several channels.
Advantages Of FDM:
FDM is used for analog signals.
FDM process is very simple and easy modulation.
A Large number of signals can be sent through an FDM simultaneously.
It does not require any synchronization between sender and receiver.
Disadvantages Of FDM:
FDM technique is used only when low-speed channels are required.
It suffers the problem of crosstalk.
A Large number of modulators are required.
It requires a high bandwidth channel.
Applications Of FDM:
FDM is commonly used in TV networks.
It is used in FM and AM broadcasting. Each FM radio station has different frequencies, and
they are multiplexed to form a composite signal. The multiplexed signal is transmitted in
the air.
• Time Division Multiplexing
• It is a digital technique.
• In Frequency Division Multiplexing Technique, all signals operate at the same time
with different frequency, but in case of Time Division Multiplexing technique, all
signals operate at the same frequency with different time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the channel
is distributed among different users. Therefore, each user is allocated with different
time interval known as a Time slot at which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
• A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
• In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted simultaneously
rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
• In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames. Frames contain a cycle of
time slots in which each frame contains one or more slots dedicated to each user.
• It can be used to multiplex both digital and analog signals but mainly used to
multiplex digital signals.
• There are two types of TDM:
• Synchronous TDM
• Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
Asynchronous TDM
Concept Of Asynchronous TDM