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The
Atmosphere
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ATMOSPHERE
INTRODUCTION
The atmosphere is the medium in which an aircraft operates. It is the
properties of the atmosphere, changed by the shape of the wing, that
generate the required Lift force.
The most important property is air density (the “thickness” of air)
KEY FACT:
If air density decreases, the mass of air flowing over the aircraft in a
given time will decrease. Not usually considered during the study of
Principles of Flight, keeping the idea of Mass flow (Kg/s) in the
‘back of your mind’ can aid general understanding.
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ATMOSPHERE
A given mass flow will generate the required Lift force, but a
decrease in air density will reduce the mass flow.
The increased speed of airflow over the wing will restore the mass
flow and Lift force to its previous value.
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THE PHYSICAL Master title style
OF AIR
Air has substance! Air has mass; not very much if compared to other
matter, but nevertheless a significant amount. A mass of moving air
has considerable kinetic energy, for example when moving at 100
knots the kinetic energy of air can inflict severe damage to man-made
structures.
Since air is compressible, the lower layers contain much the greater
part of the whole mass of the atmosphere.
The unit for static pressure is N/m2, the symbol is lower case ‘p’.
Static pressure will exert the same force per square meter on all
surfaces of an airplane. The lower the altitude the greater the force
per square meter.
The unit for density is kg/m3 and the symbol is the Greek letter ρ [rho].
Density is ‘Mass per unit volume’ (The ‘number’ of air particles in a
given space).
Density varies with static pressure, temperature and humidity.
• Density decreases if static pressure decreases.
• Density decreases if temperature increases.
• Density decreases if humidity increases.
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editDENSITY
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Consider air flowing at 52 m/s (100 kt) with a density of 1.225 kg/m3
Q = ½ ρ V2
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KEYMaster
FACTStitle style
Indicated Air Speed: (IAS). The speed registered on the Air Speed
Indicator.
Calibrated Air Speed: (CAS). An accurate measure of dynamic
pressure when the aircraft is flying slowly.
The position of the pitot tube(s) and static vent(s), together with the
aircraft’s configuration (Flaps, landing gear etc.) and attitude to the
airflow (Angle of attack and sideslip) will affect the pressures
sensed; particularly the pressures sensed at the static vent(s).
Under the influence of the above conditions a false dynamic
pressure (IAS) will be displayed. When IAS is corrected for this
‘position’ or ‘pressure’ error, as it’s called, the resultant is Calibrated
Air Speed.
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RELATIONSHIPS Master titleAIR
styleSPEEDS
At a given air density, the amount of compression depends on the speed of the
aircraft through the air. When the IAS is corrected for ‘position’ AND
‘compressibility’ error, the resultant is Equivalent Air Speed.
True Air Speed: (TAS) or (V). The speed of the aircraft through the air. THE
ONLY SPEED THERE IS - All the other, so called, speeds are pressures.
The Air Speed Indicator is calibrated for ‘standard’ sea level density, so it will
only read TAS if the density of the air through which the aircraft is flying is
1.225 kg/m3. Thus at 40,000 ft where the ‘standard’ density is one quarter of the
sea-level value, to maintain the same EAS the aircraft will have to move
through the air twice as fast!
The Speed of Sound: (a) Sound is ‘weak’ pressure waves which propagate
spherically through the atmosphere from their source. The speed at which
pressure waves propagate is proportional to the square root of the absolute
temperature of the air.
The lower the temperature, the lower the speed of propagation. On a ‘standard’
day at sea level the speed of sound is approximately 340 m/s (660 kt TAS).
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RELATIONSHIPS Master titleAIR
styleSPEEDS
At higher aircraft True Air Speeds (TAS) and/or higher altitudes, it is essential to
know the speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound. This speed
relationship is known as the Mach Number (M).
If the True Air Speed of the aircraft is four tenths the speed at which pressure
waves propagate through the air mass surrounding the aircraft, the Mach meter
will register 0.4 M
Critical Mach Number: (MCRIT) The critical Mach number is the Mach number
of the aircraft when the speed of the airflow over some part of the aircraft (usually
the point of maximum thickness on the aerofoil) first reaches the speed of sound.
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AIRSPEED title style
INDICATOR
The airspeed indicator is really a pressure gauge, the ‘needle’ of which responds
to changes in dynamic pressure (½ ρ V2 ).
Calibration of the airspeed indicator is based on standard sea level density
(1.225 kg/m3). The “airspeed” recorded will be different from the actual speed of
the aircraft through the air unless operating under standard sea-level conditions
(unlikely). The actual speed of the aircraft relative to the free stream is called
true airspeed (TAS), and denoted by (V). The ‘speed’ recorded by the airspeed
indicator calibrated as above, if there are no other errors, is called equivalent
airspeed (EAS).
It may seem to be a drawback that the instrument records equivalent rather than
true airspeed. But the true airspeed may always be determined from it. Also,
many of the handling characteristics of an aircraft depend mainly on the
dynamic pressure, i.e. on the equivalent airspeed, so it is often more useful to
have a direct reading of EAS than TAS.
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ERRORS ANDMaster title style
CORRECTIONS
An airspeed indicator is, however, also subject to errors other than that due to the
difference between the density of the air through which it is flying and standard
sea level density.
Instrument Error: This error may arise from the imperfections in the design
and manufacture of the instrument,
Position Error (Pressure Error): This error is of two kinds, one relating to the
static pressure measurement, the other to the pitot (total) pressure measurement.
The pitot tube(s) and static port(s) may be mounted in a position on the aircraft
where the flow is affected by the presence of the aircraft, changes in configuration
(flaps and maybe gear) and proximity to the ground (ground effect).
Compressibility Error: At high speeds, the dynamic pressure is not simply ½ ρ
V2, but exceeds it by a factor determined by Mach number. Thus the airspeed
indicator will over-read.
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ERRORS ANDMaster title style
CORRECTIONS
Because of the errors listed, the ‘speed’ recorded on the airspeed indicator
is generally not the equivalent airspeed. It is called instead the indicated
airspeed.
Corrections to rectify the instrument and position errors are determined
experimentally. In flight, using special instruments, measurements are
taken over the whole range of speeds and configurations, from which a
calibration curve is obtained which gives the corrections appropriate to
each indicated airspeed.
The compressibility error correction may be obtained by calculation.
The indicated airspeed, after correction for instrument, position
(pressure) and compressibility errors, gives the equivalent airspeed ½ ρ
V2.
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SPEEDS
These include: VS , V1 , VR , V2 , VMD , VMC , VYSE and many others - these are all
Calibrated Air Speeds because they relate to aircraft operations at low speed.
However, the appropriate corrections are made and these speeds are supplied to
the pilot in the Flight Manual as IAS.
VMO - The maximum operating IAS is however an EAS because it is a high speed,
but again is supplied to the pilot in the Flight Manual as an IAS.