MBABusiness Research by Robson Methods All

RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY DIRE DAWA
CAMPUS MASTERS OF BUSINESS

ADMINISTRATION (MBA) PROGRAM
BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS
COURSE INSTRUCTOR
MR.ROBSON MEKONNIN(ASSISTANT
PROFESSOR)
11/27/21 1
COURSE CONTENTS AND PRESENTATION
FLOW
Chapter One: Introduction to Business Research

Chapter Two: Business Research Proposal
Chapter Three : Business Research Design
Chapter Four : The Sources and Collection of Data
Chapter Five: Processing and Analysis of Data
 Chapter Six : Interpretation of Data
Chapter Seven: Research Report Writing
11/27/21 2
Chapter One
Introduction to Business
Research
11/27/21 3
MEANING , PURPOSE AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF RESEARCH
 Research is one of those words that we are likely to

come across on an almost daily basis.
 Although research is important in both business and
academia, there is no consensus in the literature on
how it should be defined.
 The main reason for this is that different people can
interpret research differently.
11/27/21 4
MEANING , PURPOSE AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
 Meaning or Definition of Research

 The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines
the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and the latter as a verb
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
 Research refers to a search for and verification of knowledge
11/27/21 5
OF RESEARCH
 “A systematic investigation to establish facts or collect information on a

subject.”(Collins English Dictionary, 2004:1379)
 “The process of thoroughly studying and analyzing the situational factors
surrounding a problem in order to seek out solutions to it.” (Cavana, Delahaye
and Sekaran, 2001:4)
11/27/21 6
OF RESEARCH
 “ … a systematic, careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or

relationships and to expand/verify existing knowledge for some specified
purpose.” (Bennett, 1991:68)
 “A process that people undertake in order to find out things in a systematic way,
thereby increasing their knowledge.” (Saunders et al., 2013)
11/27/21 7
 Definitions Summarized
 Process of inquiry and investigation
 Systematic and methodological
 Increases knowledge
11/27/21 8
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
Why Business Research?
 Existence of an opportunity or problem may not be

obvious.
 Precise nature of the problem or opportunity is not
known.
 Alternatives for resolving a problem, or taking
advantage of the opportunity are not fully clear.
 Set of symptoms to a problem are unclear or not all
known.
11/27/21 9
 Characteristics of Research
 Research originates with a question or a problem.
 The research goal requires a clear articulation because research is time consuming and
usually costly to conduct.
 Research follows a specific format.
 Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.
11/27/21 10
 Characteristics of Research
 Research is guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis.
 Research accepts certain critical assumptions and limitations
 Research requires the collection and interpretation of data
 Research is, by its nature, cyclical.
11/27/21 11
 Purpose of Research
 Description: The object of descriptive research is ‘to portray an accurate profile of
persons, events or situations’
 Explanation: Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be
termed explanatory research. i.e. studying a situation or a problem in order to explain
the relationships between variables.
11/27/21 12
 Purpose of Research
 Prediction
 Exploration : An exploratory study is a valuable means of finding out ‘what is
happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new
light’
11/27/21 13
CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
In actual practice, research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate
purposes.
The level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends to
accomplish.
Generally research has two levels:
1. Basic level and
2. Applied level.
11/27/21 14
BASIC LEVEL
It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not

necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.
11/27/21 15
APPLIED LEVEL
 Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the

goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.
11/27/21 16
KINDS OF RESEARCH
There are various bases to classify the research.
A. On the Basis of Objectives of Research

On the basis of objectives of research they are of two types:
1. Fundamental research and
2. Action research.
11/27/21 17
CONT…
B. On the Basis of Approach of Research

On the basis of approach of Research they are of two
types:
1. Longitudinal research: Historical research, case study,
genetic comes under longitudinal approach of research.
2. Cross sectional research: Experimental research,
survey are the examples of cross sectional research.
11/27/21 18
 Research Types
 Applied or Action Research
 Fundamental or Basic Research
 Explanatory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Qualitative Research
 Quantitative Research
 Conceptual Research
 Empirical Research
11/27/21 19
APPLIED OR ACTION RESEARCH
 In action research, the researcher works in close collaboration with a group of

people to improve a situation in a particular setting.
 The researcher does not ‘do’ research ‘on’ people, but instead works with them,
acting as a facilitator.
11/27/21 20
FUNDAMENTAL OR BASIC RESEARCH
Those researches which embrace origin or unique investigation for the advancement
of knowledge.
11/27/21 21
EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
Explanatory research: Such researches explain more concerned theories. laws and
principles.
11/27/21 22
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Descriptive research: These are more concerned with facts.
11/27/21 23
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Empirical research Empirical research is that which depends upon the experience
or observation of phenomena and events.
11/27/21 24
 Testing of new products. Business research tests the possible success of fresh

products. Businesses need to know what kinds of services and products
consumers want before they produce them.
 Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses

can also use research to guarantee sufficient
distribution of their products.
11/27/21 25
 In-house research is required for professional and self development of the

workers through training and mentoring. Research would be needed to conduct
performance evaluation, implementing changes and assessing HR well-being.
 Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure. Helps in
determining future expansions and business decisions.
11/27/21 26
 Studying the competition. Businesses frequently make use of research to study

key rivals in their markets and to remain competitive in the market.
 It can also help in the recruitment of employees. It’s through proper research
that human resource managers are able to determine and recruit qualified
manpower.
11/27/21 27
WHEN RESEARCH SHOULD BE AVOIDED?
 When information cannot be applied to a

critical managerial decision
 When managerial decision involves little risk
 When management has insufficient resources
to conduct a study
 When the cost of the study outweighs the level
of risk of the decision
11/27/21 28
MANAGER AND RESEARCHER RELATIONS
Why Managers should Know Research?
 Facilitates good decision making

 Become discriminating about research
findings
 Prevent vested interests
 Educates to share pertinent and relevant
information with researcher
11/27/21 29
 Manager’s Obligations
 Specifying problems
 Provide adequate background information
 Access to company information gatekeepers
 Researcher’s Obligations
 Develop a creative research design
 Provide answers to important business questions
11/27/21 30
Manager-Researcher Conflicts
 Management’s limited exposure to research

 Manager sees researcher as threat to personal
status
 Researcher has to consider corporate culture
and political situations
 Researcher’s isolation from managers
11/27/21 31
THE BUSINESS RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the Research Problems

After creating interest in a research work, a researcher has to think about
formulating the problem related to his research work. Choosing a correct
problem for study is the most important step in the entire research process.
After selecting the problem, the researcher has to formulate the problem.
11/27/21 32
2. Extensive Literature Survey

Before formulating the research it is desirable that researcher examines all available
literature, both conceptual and empirical.
–The conceptual literature is one which deals with concepts and theories.
–Empirical literature is that which contains studies made earlier and so it consists of many
facts and figures observed in the earlier studies.
11/27/21 33
 Systematic Literature Review

 Helps in answering questions about what works and what does not
 Assist as a method in mapping out areas of uncertainty
 Identifying where little or no relevant research has been done, but where new studies are
needed.
 Systematic reviews also flag up areas where spurious (not genuine or uninformed)
certainty abounds.
 Helps in understanding the difference between real and assumed knowledge.
11/27/21 34
3. Writing a Primary Synopsis

After formulating the problems a brief summary
of it should be written down. A research worker
has to write a synopsis of the topic selected for
research work mentioning the summary of what
is going to be done under his research.
11/27/21 35
HOW DOES LITERATURE RELATE TO
RESEARCH?
 Any research study, inductive or deductive undertaken for academic purpose

always require a review of relevant literature
 The review must be critical not just a description of what others said
 Anyone can ask a few people to fill in a questionnaire, but not everyone can
make sense of the answers!
11/27/21 36
WHAT KIND OF LITERATURE SHOULD
WE SEARCH FOR?
 Primary literature sources
 Are least accessible, Company literature, Unpublished research,
Private correspondence, Conference proceedings
 Secondary literature sources
 Are much more easily accessible
 Include published books and articles in journals, news media,
published business, government and international body publications
 For academic research peer-reviewed journals are considered more
reliable sources of literature as the materials are monitored by experts
in the field
 Tertiary literature sources
 Gateways to secondary sources
 They include encyclopedias, dictionaries, citations, indexes, catalogues
and web based portals, journal’s contents, data bases
11/27/21 37
EFFECTIVE LITERATURE SEARCHING
Involves 3 stages
Stage 1. make sure that you are using
appropriate search term
Stage 2. go to the right database or portal
Stage 3. look for the full text of the article
you need
11/27/21 38
CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LITERATURE
 Critical means looking at an expression from “why”

perspective instead of “what, who, where, when, and how”
 Examples
 While descriptive writing states what happened, critical writing identifies its
significance.
 While descriptive gives information, critical gives conclusion
 While descriptive explains what a theory says, critical shows why something is relevant
or suitable.
11/27/21 39
CRITIQUING A PUBLISHED ARTICLE
If you have difficulty thinking critically about what

you are reading, try the following set of questions;
1. What explicit assumptions are being made? can they be challenged?
2. What implicit assumptions are being made? can they be challenged?
3. How logical is the reasoning?
4. How sound is the evidence for the assertion(s)?
5. Whose interest and what interests are served by the assertions?
11/27/21 40
CRITIQUING A PUBLISHED ARTICLE
If you have difficulty thinking critically about what you are reading, try the
following set of questions;
6) What values underpin the reasoning?
7) What are implications of the conclusions?
8) What meaning is conveyed by the terminology employed?
9) What alternative conclusions can be drawn from the evidence?
10) What is being privileged and what is off the agenda in this discourse?
11) What is the context of the discourse? From what different
perspectives can the discourse be viewed?
12) How generalizable are the conclusions?
11/27/21 41
SOME FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS &
THEIR ANSWERS
 How up to date the literature should be?

 Ans. 3 or 2 years ago, depending on the area of study
 Should I deal with each reference separately?

 Ans. No you don’t have to
 Should I include my opinion?

 Ans. You can but based on evidence
 What referencing style should I use?

 Ans. Harvard style
11/27/21 42
4. Indentifying and Labeling Variables
In research the problem under study deals with

relation between variables.
–Independent variables whose change has affected the
other variable (Dependent), i.e. there is a cause and effect
relation between the variables.
–The research problem must be formulated in such a
manner that it highlights the nature, extent and
implications of relation existing between the variables.
11/27/21 43
5. Setting Up Of Hypothesis
Specification of working hypothesis is a basic step in the research process. A
hypothesis is a tentative conclusion logically drawn. The research work is
conducted to test the truth of this hypothesis.
11/27/21 44
6. Preparing the Research Design
A research design is a plan that specifies the

sources and types of information relevant to the
research problem.
–Strategy used for gathering and analyzing the data.
–Time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two constraints.
–Research design provides a rational on what to do, how to do, in investigating the
subjects.
11/27/21 45
7. Determining the Sample Design

A Sample design refers to the technique or the procedure which the researcher would
adopt in selecting some sampling units from the universe for drawing inferences
about the universe. If the proper procedure is followed to select the sample,
definitely the sample will give all dependable information.
11/27/21 46
8. Collecting of Data
There are several ways of collecting the

appropriate data. Some of the methods of
collecting primary data are:
–Observation method.
–Direct personal interview method.
–Telephone interview method.
–Questionnaire method.
–Schedule method.
11/27/21 47
Data Collection Process

 Identify variables or phenomena
 Select Sample
 Select type of data required
 Choose appropriate collection method(s)
 Conduct pilot study or exploratory research
 Modify collection method(s)
 Collect Data
11/27/21 48
9. Data Processing, Analysis and Interpretation using Statistical Methods

–Processing consists of data editing, classification, tabulation and coding.
–Analysis and Interpretation of data results in observation, analysis, conclusion, induction
and deduction. For this various statistical measures are computed.
11/27/21 49
10. Testing of Hypothesis

Testing of hypothesis will results in either accepting or rejecting the hypothesis.
Testing of hypothesis may prove or disprove a theory and a theory facilitates formulating
of a further hypothesis.
Testing of hypothesis will result in contribution to existing theory or the generation of a
new theory.
11/27/21 50
10. Preparation of the Report or Thesis
A report is a detailed description of what and how it

has been done with respect to a area of study.
–Preliminary Section (titles, data, acknowledgement foreword and table of contents.),
–Main Body (introduction, methodology, statements of findings, conclusions and
recommendations)
–End Matter (appendix, literature selected and bibliography)
11/27/21 51
FORMULATING A BUSINESS RESEARCH
PROBLEM
 The very first question that any researcher is faced with is: “What should I
investigate (research)?”
 It is impossible for a researcher to commence with a research project if s/he does
not pinpoint and clearly formulate a research problem.
11/27/21 52
PROBLEM
Problem Should Exhibit
 The research problem should represent conceptual

thinking, inquiry and insight-not merely activity.
 There should be a meaningful relationship
between the variables related to the problem.
 Once the research problem has been finalized, it is
possible to determine sub-problems, also known
as research objectives.
11/27/21 53
PROBLEM
Problem Should Exhibit

 The research problem should represent a reasonably new area of research, i.e. need not
actually to be entirely new, original or unique.
 The problem should represent research that will contribute to, and impact on the
knowledge of the subject field.
 The research problem should be researchable (manageable).
11/27/21 54
PROBLEM
Methods for Finding Problem
Exploratory research.
Literature review
Pilot study (practice run)
From individuals (subjects of the full study)
Focus Group (discussion small group
research subjects)
11/27/21 55
PROBLEM
Sources of Research Problem

 Observations and Experience. Identifying research
problems from personal experiences and observation .
 Review of Literature. reviewing literature on provides a
clue on researchable issues and problems .
 Previous Research Projects. Completed research mostly
possible future research topics.
 Theories. These are propositions explaining certain
phenomena, such as the theory of demand and supply.
11/27/21 56
PROBLEM
Components Of A Research Problem

 An individual or a group which has some difficulty or
problem.
 Some objective(s) to be attained at.
 Must be alternative means (or the courses of action) to
achieve desired objective(s).
 There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher
with regard to selecting alternatives.
 There must be some environment(s) to which the
difficulty pertains.
11/27/21 57
PROBLEM
Technique In Defining A Research Problem

1. Statement of the problem in a general way: the
problem should be stated in a broad general way,
keeping in view either some practical concern or
some scientific or intellectual interest.
2. Understanding the nature of the problem:
Understand its origin and nature clearly through
discussion with others and making environmental
observation.
11/27/21 58
PROBLEM
Technique In Defining A Research Problem

3. Surveying the available literature: related and
relevant available literature should be surveyed and
examined
4. Developing the ideas through discussions: Discuss
problem with colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems; known as an Experience Survey.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: making the
research problem as much as possible operationally
and conceptually feasible; helps in the development of
working hypotheses
11/27/21 59
PROBLEM
Points in Need of Attention

 Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings, should be clearly defined
 Basic assumptions should be clearly stated
 Clearly stating value of the investigation
 The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available
 The scope and delimitation of of the investigation
11/27/21 60
ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH
 Obtaining Voluntary and Informed Consent: A research project must be explained

to potential participants in some way prior to their involvement. Involvement in any
research project must be undertaken on a completely voluntary basis. ‘Voluntary’
means that the participant freely, without threat or inducement, agrees to be
involved in the research project.
11/27/21 61
 Handling Deception: If deception is necessary for the purpose of research, it

should be used minimally. In these circumstances, the researcher must debrief
participants at the close of data collection about the true nature of the research.
11/27/21 62
 Not to Cause Harm to Subjects: Any research activity that harms or poses
unreasonable risks to subjects is incompatible with a fundamental ethical
obligation to safeguard the physical, psychological and emotional well-being of
participants
11/27/21 63
 Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: At first glance, an explicit dictum about conflict

of interest may seem unnecessary in a research code of ethics. After all,
researchers are dedicated to an objective and seemingly impartial collection of
information. In truth, of course, researchers, like all social actors, are influenced
by their social contexts.
11/27/21 64
 Ethical Reporting-The Whole Truth and Nothing but the Truth?: Researchers
working as consultants or "hired guns" for corporations or special interest groups
bring "front and center" one other area of ethical concern: fair and accurate
reporting of research findings.
11/27/21 65
PROBLEMS OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
 Scarcity of Data
 The Lack of Research and Development (R & D) Culture
 Inadequate Funding of Research Projects
 Lack of Necessary Equipment, Facility and Research Material
 Poor Communication Network
 Unattractive Working Conditions for Research Workers
 The ‘Publish or Perish’ Syndrome
 Lack of Record-Keeping Culture
 Governmental and Societal Attitudes
11/27/21 66
READING FOR UNDERSTANDING
 Construct
 Concept
 Variable
 Theory
 Model
 Propositions
 Reasoning
 Paradigm
 Scientific Method
11/27/21 67
Factors Affecting Problem Definition
Situation Frequency
Dramatic Changes
How Widespread Are The
Symptoms?
Symptom Ambiguity
11/27/21 68
Chapter Two
Business Research Proposal
11/27/21 69
BUSINESS RESEARCH PROPOSAL
AND ITS PURPOSE
 It is a document that is typically written by a scientist, academic or practitioners

which describes the ideas for an investigation on a certain topic. The research
proposal outlines the process from beginning to end and may be used to request
financing for the project, certification for performing certain parts of research of
the experiment, or as a required task before beginning a college dissertation. (
www.businessdictionary.com)
11/27/21 70
AND ITS PURPOSE
Purpose of Proposal
 To present the management or research question to be answered through research and
explain its importance
 To discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on related management
questions
 To suggest the data necessary for solving the management question and suggest ways in
which the data can be obtained, treated, and interpreted.
11/27/21 71
AND ITS PURPOSE
Benefits of writing a research proposal

 Helps researcher clarify purpose and design of research
 Reveals strengths and weaknesses of planned approach
 Used to secure funding or approval to conduct research
 Serves as a logical plan and guide when carrying out
research
11/27/21 72
AND ITS PURPOSE
General Proposal Guidelines

 Should be well-written
 Clearly communicate essential material
 Present convincing, well-supported argument for proposed research
 Logical, well-formatted organization
 Headings and subheadings
 Appropriate and consistent margins, fonts, pagination, spacing
11/27/21 73
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
1. A clear statement of the overall aims and objectives of

the research.
2. A statement outlining the originality and importance of
the research.
3. A brief description of existing work in the area.
4. How the research is to be conducted, the research
design to be adopted, anticipated methods and
indication of the sample group, sample size and
recruitment methods.
11/27/21 74
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
5. How the data collected are to be analysed.
6. The anticipated time scale for the
research.
7. The anticipated outcomes of the research.
8. Any specific requirements in terms of
access, financial requirements, etc.
9. Any ethical issues that may be relevant to
11/27/21 75
the study.
Formulation of Objectives and
Hypothesis
11/27/21 76
FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
 Research objectives indicate in more detail the

specific research topics or issues the project plans
to investigate building on the problem statement.
 Normally at least two or three research objectives
will be stated.
 Research objectives refer to the areas of
knowledge the research is aiming to build on or
advance.
11/27/21 77
 General and specific research objectives should be clearly

distinguished.
 Statement of research objectives should minimize potential
for misunderstanding or misinterpretation by readers.
 A better approach is to list only a series of research
objectives i.e. logical sequences
 Think carefully about the relationship between your research
objectives or questions and your choice of research methods
11/27/21 78
Objectives can be stated as:

 General objective/s/: These are understood as
the overall objectives of the research project;
 Specific objectives: These are understood as the
elements of the research which are directly
addressable by the methodology and which are
followed in order to achieve the general
objectives; and
11/27/21 79
Paraphrasing Research
FORMULATION Questions As Research Objectives
OF OBJECTIVES
Research Question Research Objective
Why have organizations To identify organization’s
introduced early objectives for introducing
retirement? retirement schemes.
What are the consequences To describe the consequences of
of early retirement early retirement for employees.
schemes?
To explore the effects of early
retirement for the organization.
11/27/21 80
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESES
 Research hypotheses are predictions of a relationship between two or more

variables.
 A hypothesis is a tentative statement or an educated guess suggesting possible
relationship, difference, or case between two or more variables that can be
investigated and tested.
11/27/21 81
Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

 Clarity of concept
 Specific and clear
 Ability to test (statistically feasible)
 Limited in scope
 Understandable
 Consistent
 Logical
 Objectivity
11/27/21 82
Types of Hypotheses
Declarative (directional and non
directional)
Null hypotheses
Inductive or deductive based
11/27/21 83
STRUCTURING RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Preliminary Parts
Main Parts
Supplementary Parts
11/27/21 84
A. Preliminary Parts
1. Cover Page: it contains
 Title and Rationale
 Researcher /Author or Investigator/ and Supervisor Name
 The Name of the Department/ Institution;
 Presentation Date or submission
2. Acknowledgment
3. Table of Content, List of Tables and List of Figures
4. Abbreviations and Acronyms
5. Abstract or Executive Summary
11/27/21 85
B. Main Part
1. Background of the Study
 Provides some general theoretical basis or
justifications
 The overall justification as to why the study is
needed.
2. Statement of the Problem
 Transposing the main research question in to a
statement enables the researcher to state the
purpose of the study.
11/27/21 86
 Problem Statement : usually in a few paragraphs. It

should indicate:
 The focus area of the research (the issue raised)
 Indicates researches done by other researchers in the
area including their findings
 Indicate issues that are not yet assessed by other
researcher in the area (the knowledge gap or unsolved
questions which appears to justify another research.
11/27/21 87
Problem Statement
Show difference in the findings of various
researchers in the area (if any)
Indicate the study area and the issues or
subjects of research
Indicate the purpose of the study
Indicate what is meant to be shown or done
by the research
11/27/21 88
Problem Statement
 Start with a general statement of the problem or issues
 Make sure the problem is restricted in scope
 Make sure the context of the problem is clear
 Cite the references from which the problem was
stated previously.
 Provide justification for the research to be conducted
 Motivates to conduct the proposed research
 Highlight the problems/demerits of the available
techniques
11/27/21 89
3. Objectives of the Study: research objectives refer to

the areas of knowledge the research is aiming to build
on or advance.
4. Research Hypotheses/Research questions
5. Significance of the Study: shows the explicit benefits
and the beneficiaries of the results of the research being
conducted.
6. Scope of the Study: should be stated in relation to the
area coverage as well as to the treatment of the
variables in the study
11/27/21 90
7. Limitation of the Study: This is a part that

you will include some constraints or
difficulties you think that they have
influence on the results of your study.
8. Literature Review: A section in our
research that explains, interprets and
discusses what has been researched and
documented previously .
11/27/21 91
9. Research Methodology: brief statement describing

the general research methods to be followed in relation
to the research problems and hypothesis
 Research Design and Strategies
 Methods of Data Collection
 Sampling Procedures
 Methods of Data Processing, Presentation, Analysis
and Interpretation
11/27/21 92
C. Supplementary Parts
1. Budget
 Finance
 Time
2. Appendix
3. Professional certificate/CVs
11/27/21 93
Down-to-Earth Advice:
Please start writing the proposal as soon as
you can.
It is in the process of writing that the actual
‘structure’ will appear – not when you are
just thinking about it.
11/27/21 94
Writing A Business Research
Proposal
(Assignment)
11/27/21 95
Chapter Three
Business Research Design

11/27/21 96
WHAT IS A BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN?
 Once the objectives of a research project have been established, the issue of how
these objectives can be met leads to a consideration of which research design will
be appropriate.
 Research design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data and
subsequently indicates which research methods are appropriate.
11/27/21 97
BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN
Types Of Research Designs : the following

research designs are the most commonly
used in conducting business research.
Experimental
Survey
Case studies
11/27/21 98
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
 Experimental Research
 Experimental research differs from the other research approaches noted above through
its greater control over the objects of its study.
 The researcher strives to isolate and control every relevant condition which
determines the events investigated, so as to observe the effects when the conditions are
manipulated.
11/27/21 99
 Experimental Research
◦ When the researcher has established that the study is amenable to experimental
methods, a prediction (technically called a hypothesis) of the likely cause-and-effect
patterns of the phenomenon has to be made.
◦ This allows decisions to be made as to what variables are to be tested and how they
are to be controlled and measured.
11/27/21 100
 Types of Experimental Research

 ‘Pre-Experimental’:
 No control or comparison group to compare

 A group is given a pre-test (E.g., Supervisory
behavior), is exposed to a treatment (E.g., Training),
and is then administered a post-test (supervisory
behavior) to measure the effects of the treatment.
 The effects of the treatment are measured by the
difference between the pre-test and the post-test.
11/27/21 101
BUSINESS RESEARCH DESIGN EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
 Types of Experimental Research
 True Experimental Design

 This classical experimental design has an
experimental/treatment group and a control group both
measured at pre-test and post-test on the dependent
variable.
 There is random allocation of cases to experimental and
control groups.
 The only difference between the two groups is that one
received the treatment and the other did not.
11/27/21 102
SURVEY DESIGN
 Survey Design
◦ This is a research design in which a group of people

or items is studied by collecting and analyzing
sample data or data from the entire population. If
the survey involves study of a sample from the
population, it is referred to as a Sample Survey. If it
involves the study of the entire population, it is
referred to as a Census Survey.

11/27/21 103
SURVEY DESIGN
 Types Of Survey
 A cross-sectional survey collects data at one time. The
researcher can generalize findings from such one-shot studies to
the sampled population only at the time of the survey.
 A longitudinal survey takes place over time with two or more
data collections and has the benefit of measuring change over
time.
 Trend survey
 Cohort survey
 Panel survey
11/27/21 104
CASE STUDY DESIGN
 Case Study Research Design:

 This involves intensive study geared towards a thorough understanding of a given
social unit or business activities. It is worth noting that case studies are of limited
generalisability.
 Only very few units are involved in case studies and as such, the findings cannot be
generalized to the population.
 much emphasis is on obtaining a complete description and understanding of factors in
each case, regardless of the number involved.
11/27/21 105
CASE STUDY DESIGN
 Strength
 One of the greatest strengths of the case study design is its adaptability to different
types of research question and to different research settings.
 The use of multiple sources of evidence allows triangulation of findings
 Offer the benefit of studying phenomena in detail and in context, particularly in
situations where there are many more variables of interest than there are observations.
11/27/21 106
CASE STUDY DESIGN
 Weakness
 Selection bias whereby the choice of cases biases the findings of the research
 Concern raised is general is ability, particularly of single case studies
 The requirement it places on the researcher in terms of dealing with the complexity of
field research if multiple data collection methods are used
11/27/21 107
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Quantitative Research
is predominantly used as a synonym for
any data collection technique (such as a
questionnaire) or data analysis procedure
(such as graphs or statistics) that generates
or uses numerical data.
11/27/21 108
DESIGN STRATEGIES
Qualitative Research
is used predominantly as a synonym for
any data collection technique (such as an
interview) or data analysis procedure
(such as categorizing data) that generates
or use non-numerical data.
11/27/21 109
DESIGN STRATEGIES
 Mixed Methods Approach: is the general term for when both quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a
research design; either at the same time (parallel) or one after the other
(sequential) but does not combine them
11/27/21 110
DESIGN STRATEGIES
 Why Mixed Methods Approach?

 Triangulation (to corroborate research finding)
 Facilitation (as an aid)
 Complementarity (to fill gaps)
 Generality ( to contextualize main study)
 Aid Interpretation(to help explain relationships and aspects)
 Study different aspects
 Solving a puzzle (method reveals unexplainable)
11/27/21 111
DESIGN STRATEGIES
 Mono or Multiple Method
 Mono Method: using a single data collection

technique and corresponding analysis
procedures; or
 Multiple Methods: using more than one data
collection techniques and analysis procedures
to answer your research question.
11/27/21 112
MEASUREMENT
 Conceptualization
 Operationalization
 Dimensions
 Indicators
 Level of Measurements
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Ratio
11/27/21 113
MEASUREMENT OF QUALITY
Criteria of Measurement Quality

Precision,
Accuracy,
Reliability, and
Validity.
11/27/21 114
 Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which

researchers measure what they planned to measure.
 Criterion-Related Validity: is the degree to
which a measure correlates with some other
measure accepted as an accurate indicator of the
concept. Example: voting preference (measured
prior to the election) is correlated with actual
voting behavior.
11/27/21 115
 Face Validity: Some simply involve researchers asking
themselves if their measures seem like logical and
common sense ways to measure concepts. Example:
measuring income of a family, valid in case the income
of the husband and the wife is considered, if both are
earning.
 Content Validity: is similar to face validity but uses
stricter standards. For a measure to have content
validity, it must capture all dimensions or features of
the concept as it is defined. For example, a general job
satisfaction measure should include pay satisfaction,
job security satisfaction, satisfaction with promotion
opportunities, and so on.
11/27/21 116
◦ Construct Validity: of a measure refers to one of two validity

assessment strategies. First, it can refer to whether the variable,
when assessed with this measure, behaves as it should. For
example, if the theory (and/or past research) says it should be
related positively to another variable Y, then that relationship
should be found when the measure is used. The second use of
construct validity refers to the degree to which multiple
indicators of the concept are related to the underlying construct
and not to some other construct. For example, if a researcher
has five indicators of cultural capital and four indicators of
social capital, a factor analysis should produce two lowly
correlated factors, one for each set of indicators.
11/27/21 117
 Reliability
 Test-retest Method–make the same measurement more than once – should expect same
response both times
 Inter-Rater Reliability– compare measurements from different raters; verify initial
measurements
 Split-Half Method– make more than one measure of any concept; see if each measures
the concept differently
11/27/21 118
SCALING DESIGN
COMPARATIVE SCALING
TECHNIQUES
11/27/21 119
SCALING DESIGN
 Paired Comparison Scaling
 Paired comparison scaling as its name indicates involves

presentation of two objects and asking the respondents to
select one according to some criteria. The data are obtained
using ordinal scale. For example, a respondent may be asked
to indicate his/her preference for TVs in a paired manner.
 The most common method of taste testing is done by paired
comparison where the consumer may be, for example, asked
to taste two different brands of soft drinks and select the one
with the most appealing taste.
11/27/21 120
SCALING DESIGN
 Rank Order Scaling
 This is another popular comparative scaling

technique. In rank order scaling is done by presenting
the respondents with several objects simultaneously
and asked to order or rank them based on a particular
criterion. For example, the customers may rank their
preference for TVs among several brands. In this
scaling technique, ordinal scale is used. The
consumers may be asked to rank several brands of
television in an order,
11/27/21 121
SCALING DESIGN
 Constant Sum Scaling
 This technique allows the respondents to

allocate a constant sum of units, such as points,
rupees or among a set of stimulus objects with
respect to some criterion.
 The technique involves asking the respondents
to assign 10 points to attributes of a sports
utility vehicle. If the attribute is unimportant,
then the respondents would want to enter zero.
11/27/21 122
SCALING DESIGN
NON-COMPARATIVE SCALING
TECHNIQUES
11/27/21 123
SCALING DESIGN
 Continuous Rating Scale
 This is also otherwise called as graphic rating scale. This

is a type of scale that offers respondents a form of
continuum (such as a line) on which to provide a rating of
an object.
 Continuous rating scale allows the respondents to indicate
their rating by placing a mark at the appropriate point on a
line
 Example :Worst--------------------x-----------------------
Empathy-------------------------------------x---
11/27/21 124
SCALING DESIGN
 Itemized Rating Scales
 Likert Scale: The respondents require to

indicate a degree of agreement or
disagreement with each of a series of
statements about the stimulus objects.
 Example:1=Strongly disagree, 2=Disagree,
3=Neither agree nor disagree, 4=Agree,
5=Strongly agree
11/27/21 125
SCALING DESIGN
Itemized Rating Scales
 Semantic Differential Scale:Seven point rating scales

bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives such as
“Excellent” and “Very bad”. The respondents indicate their
response choosing the one that best describes their choice.
 The points are marked either from - 3 to +3 through a zero or
from 1 to 7. The middle value maybe treated as a neutral
position. The value zero in the first type is the neutral point
and 4 in the second type is the neutral point.
 Example: (7)Excellent-------------------------Unpleasant (1)
11/27/21 126
SCALING DESIGN
 Itemized Rating Scales

 Stapel Scale: This is a unipolar rating scale with in
general 10 categories number from -5 to +5 without a
neutral point (zero). This scale is usually presented
vertically and respondents choose their response based on
how accurately or inaccurately each item describes the
object by selecting an appropriate numerical response
category. The higher number indicates more accurate
description of the object and lower number indicates
lower description of the object.
11/27/21 127
SAMPLING DESIGN
Sampling can be defined as

selecting part of the elements in a
population. It results in the fact
that, conclusions from the sample
may be extended to that about the
entire population.
11/27/21 128
SAMPLING DESIGN
It must be representative

Homogeneity (similarity of sample with the
universes)
 Adequate samples
Optimization (cost and efficiency(quality of
data in relation to sample size))
11/27/21 129
SAMPLING DESIGN
Merits
 Its save time
 It reduces cost
 More reliable result can obtained
 It provides more detailed information
 Sometimes only method to depend upon
 Administrative convenience
 More scientific
11/27/21 130
SAMPLING DESIGN
 The sampling process comprises several stages:

 Defining the population of concern
 Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to
measure
 Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the
frame
 Determining the sample size
 Implementing the sampling plan
 Sampling and data collecting
 Reviewing the sampling process
11/27/21 131
SAMPLING DESIGN
Probability Sampling
 A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has
a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample, and this probability
can be accurately determined.
 When every element in the population does have the same probability of
selection, this is known as an 'equal probability of selection' (EPS) design. Such
designs are also referred to as 'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given
the same weight.
11/27/21 132
SAMPLING DESIGN
Probability Sampling Includes:

Simple Random Sampling,
Systematic Sampling,
Stratified Random Sampling,
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling.
11/27/21 133
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Simple Random Sampling

• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each
element of the frame thus has an equal probability of selection.
• It provides for greatest number of possible samples. This is
done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame.
• A table of random number or lottery system is used to
determine which units are to be selected.
11/27/21 134
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Systematic Sampling
 Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target population
according to some ordering scheme and then selecting elements
at regular intervals through that ordered list.
 Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds
with the selection of every kth element from then onwards. In
this case, k=(population size/sample size).
 It is important that the starting point is not automatically the
first in the list, but is instead randomly chosen from within the
first to the kth element in the list.
 A simple example would be to select every 10th name from the
telephone directory (an 'every 10th' sample, also referred to as
'sampling with a skip of 10').
11/27/21 135
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Stratified Sampling
 Where population embraces a number of distinct categories, the frame
can be organized into separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled
as an independent sub-population, out of which individual elements
can be randomly selected.
 Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being selected.
 Using same sampling fraction for all strata ensures proportionate
representation in the sample.
 Adequate representation of minority subgroups of interest can be
ensured by stratification & varying sampling fraction between strata
as required.
11/27/21 136
SAMPLING DESIGN
Cluster Sampling
 Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
 First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
 Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is selected.
 Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units, usually based
on geographical contiguity.
 Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
 A sample of such clusters is then selected.
 All units from the selected clusters are studied.
11/27/21 137
SAMPLING DESIGN
Difference Between Strata and Clusters

 Although strata and clusters are both non-overlapping
subsets of the population, they differ in several ways.
 All strata are represented in the sample; but only a
subset of clusters are in the sample.
 With stratified sampling, the best survey results occur
when elements within strata are internally
homogeneous. However, with cluster sampling, the
best results occur when elements within clusters are
internally heterogeneous
11/27/21 138
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Multistage Sampling
 Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or
more levels of units are embedded one in the other.
 First stage, random number of districts chosen in all
states.
 Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
 Then third stage units will be houses.
 All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at
last step are surveyed.
11/27/21 139
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Non-Probability Sampling
• Non-probability Sampling includes:
Accidental Sampling, Quota Sampling, Snowball
Sampling And Purposive Sampling.
• In addition, non-response effects may turn any
probability design into a non-probability design if the
characteristics of non-response are not well
understood, since non-response effectively modifies
each element's probability of being sampled.
11/27/21 140
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Convenience Sampling
 Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or
accidental or haphazard sampling.
 A type of non-probability sampling which involves the sample
being drawn from that part of the population which is close to
hand. That is, readily available and convenient.
 For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a
shopping center early in the morning on a given day, the people
that he/she could interview would be limited to those given
there at that given time, which would not represent the views of
other members of society in such an area, if the survey was to
be conducted at different times of day and several times per
week.
11/27/21 141
SAMPLING DESIGN
Judgmental or Purposive Sampling

The researcher chooses the sample based
on who they think would be appropriate for
the study. This is used primarily when there
is a limited number of people that have
expertise in the area being researched
11/27/21 142
SAMPLING DESIGN
 Quota Sampling
 The population is first segmented into
mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
 Then judgment used to select subjects or units from
each segment based on a specified proportion.
 For example, an interviewer may be told to sample
200 females and 300 males between the age of 45
and 60.
 Snowball or Referral Sampling
11/27/21 143
SAMPLING DESIGN
11/27/21 144
SAMPLING DESIGN
11/27/21 145
SAMPLING DESIGN
11/27/21 146
Chapter Four
The Sources and Collection of

Data
11/27/21 147
SOURCES OF DATA-PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY
Primary and Secondary Data

Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Discrete and Continuous Data
11/27/21 148
SOURCES OF DATA-PRIMARY
 Primary data are collected by the investigator directly from study participants to
address a specific question or hypothesis.
 Primary Sources are first-hand accounts of an event, a life, a moment in time.
They are in their original form (diaries, letters, photos, etc.) usually without
explanation or interpretation.
11/27/21 149
SOURCES OF DATA- PRIMARY
Some of the Sources of Primary Data

 Auto-biographies and Memoirs
 Diaries
 Letters and correspondences
 Original works of literatures
 Records of organizations and government agencies
 Legal cases and treaties
11/27/21 150
SOURCES OF DATA- PRIMARY
 Merits Of Primary Data

 Better data interpretation
 Target issues are addressed
 Efficient spending for information
 Decency of data
 Addresses specific research issues
 Greater control
 Proprietary issues
11/27/21 151
METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA
 Primary Data Collection Methods

 Questionnaire
 Observation
 Interview
 Focus group discussion
11/27/21 152
METHODS OF COLLECTING
PRIMARY DATA
 Questionnaire
 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on
a form or set of forms.
 Schedules: data collection through schedules is very much like the collection of data
through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
11/27/21 153
PRIMARY DATA
 Types of Questionnaire
 Self- Administered Questionnaire
 Mail Questionnaire
 Electronic Questionnaire
 Schedules
11/27/21 154
PRIMARY DATA
 Close Ended Questions

 List – select any answer
 Category –select one answer
 Ranking- put answers in order
 Rating – score or give a value to answers
 Quantity – respond with amount
 Grid – complete matrix to provide more than one answer
11/27/21 155
PRIMARY DATA
 Open Ended Questions

 Open list- number of answers required, type of answer free
 Open essay – often used as a final option to let respondent comment
 Personal questions about opinion – free answer
 Personal questions about behavior- free answer
11/27/21 156
PRIMARY DATA
 Interview
 The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses
 Interview formats
 Personal interview
 Electronic interview (Telephone, Tele-conferencing, On-line etc)
 Forms – Structured vs. Non-Structured
11/27/21 157
PRIMARY DATA
 Observation
 It is the use of eyes rather than of ears and voice
 It is accurate watching noting of phenomena as they occur with regard to the cause and
effect or mutual relations
 It is direct , in natural setting, less structured and qualitative study
11/27/21 158
PRIMARY DATA
• Forms of Observation:
 Structured and Non-structured
 Direct and Indirect
 Simple and Systematic
 Participant and Non-participant
• Role of Observers
‾ Complete Observer
‾ Complete Participant
‾ Participant as Observer
‾ Observer as Participant
11/27/21 159
PRIMARY DATA
 Conducting Observation: Unstructured

 Take a note book and pen
 Note down when you see something interesting
 Do not jump to conclusion
 Look for more evidence
 Ask people conforming things
11/27/21 160
PRIMARY DATA
 Focus Group Discussion

 The main purpose of the focus group interview/discussion shall be to provide
information concerning community-level data through group interviews.
 FGD typically has 6 to 12 members, plus a mediator. Eight is a popular size.
 FGD can be extremely useful particularly when it is used together with evidences
obtained through other methods of research.
11/27/21 161
DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRE
 Sections of a Questionnaire
 Identification data occupation is the first section of a questionnaire where the
researcher intends to collect data pertaining to the respondent’s name, address and
phone number.
 Request for cooperation refers to gaining respondent’s cooperation regarding the data
collection process.
 Instruction refers to the comments to the respondent regarding how to use the
questionnaire.
11/27/21 162
 Sections of a Questionnaire
The information sought form the major

portion of the questionnaire. This refers to
the items relating to the actual area of the
study.
Classification data are concerned with the
characteristics of the respondent.
11/27/21 163
 Characteristics Of Good Questionnaire
 Relevance
 Consistency
 Usability
 Clarity
 Quantifiability
 Legibility.
11/27/21 164
 Guidelines
 Explain the purpose of the interview or questionnaire to all participants
 Keep your questions as simple as possible
 Avoid the use of jargon or specialist language
 Phrase each question so that only one meaning is possible
 Avoid vague, descriptive words such as ‘large’ and ‘small’
 Avoid asking negative questions as these can easily be misinterpreted
 Only ask one question at a time
 Include relevant questions only
11/27/21 165
 Guidelines
 Include questions which serve as cross-checks on answers to the other questions
 Avoid questions which require the respondents to perform calculations
 Avoid leading or value-laden questions which imply what the required answer might be
 Avoid offensive questions or insensitive questions which could cause embarrassment
11/27/21 166
 Guidelines
 Avoid questions that look like memory test
 Keep your interview schedule or questionnaire as short as possible, but include all the
questions required to cover your research purpose and/or answer your research
questions and test your stated research hypotheses.
 Minimize the number of open-ended questions to ensure good return and response rate.
11/27/21 167
Cautions
 Avoid questions which do not relate to the research
objectives, research questions and research hypotheses.
 Avoid such leading questions as those questions,
beginning with such terms as “In view of the fact that”
 Avoid unnecessary presumptions about the respondents.
 The format to be adopted will depend on the dept of the
information required.
11/27/21 168
Questioning
 General To Particular Questions
 Factual To Abstract Questions
 Closed To Open-ended Questions
11/27/21 169
COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA
 Secondary data are the data that are in actual existence

in accessible records, having been already collected and
treated statistically by the persons maintaining the
records.
 Collecting secondary data doesn't mean doing some
original enumeration but it merely means obtaining data
that have already been collected by some agencies,
reliable persons, government departments, research
workers, dependable organizations etc.
11/27/21 170
 Nature of Secondary Data
 Secondary data offer cost and time economies to the

researcher as they already exist in various forms in the
company or in the market.
 It is feasible for a firm to collect.
 Since they are collected for some other purposes, it may
sometimes not fit perfectly into the problem defined.
 The objectives, nature and methods used to collect the
secondary data may not be appropriate to the present
situation.
11/27/21 171
 Secondary data helps to:

 Identify the problem.
 Better define the problem.
 Develop an approach to the problem.
 Formulate an appropriate research design by identifying the key variables.
 Answer certain research questions and formulate hypotheses.
 Interpret the primary data more in-depth.
11/27/21 172
 Sources
 Central and State government publications.
 Publications brought out by international organization like the UNO,
UNESCO, etc.
 Foreign government publications.
 Reports and publications of commissions
 Well-know newspapers and journals
 Publications brought out by research institutions, universities and
research workers
 Internet/website sources, etc.
11/27/21 173
 Evaluating Secondary Data

 Reliability of data: researcher, sources, methods, time, and process of anlsysis.
 Suitability of data: Data must be evaluated whether they could serve for another
purpose other than the one for which they were collected.
 Adequacy of data: This should be done in terms of area coverage, level of accuracy,
number of respondents, etc.
11/27/21 174
SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE METHOD OF
COLLECTION
 Factors to be considers
 Purpose and scope of enquiry
 Availability of time
 Availability of resources
 The degree of accuracy desired
 Statistical units to be used
 Sources of information
11/27/21 175
Chapter Five
Processing and Analysis
of Data
11/27/21 176
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Data Processing
 Processing is a statistical method by which the collected data is so organized the further
analysis and interpretation of data become easy.
 It is an intermediary stage between the collection of data and their analysis and
interpretation.
 It includes : Editing, Coding, Classification, and Tabulation
11/27/21 177
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Editing
 Editing is the process of examining the data collected through various methods to detect
errors and omissions and correct them for further analysis.
 Accuracy, consistency, uniformity, completeness, etc
 For instance
 Numerical values converted in to same units
 Modification must be indicated properly
 Incorrect answers corrected if absolutely correct
11/27/21 178
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Coding
 Coding is the process by which r response categories are summarized by numerals or
other symbols to carry out subsequent operations of data analysis.
 In general it reduces the huge amount of information collected in to a form that is
amenable to analysis.
11/27/21 179
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Coding Rules
 Give each respondent a code number for

identification.
 Provide code number for each question.
 All responses including ‘don’t know’, ‘no
opinion’. Etc is to be coded.
 Assign additional codes to partially coded
questions.
11/27/21 180
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Classification
 Classification is the process of reducing large mass of data in to homogeneous groups
for meaningful analysis.
 It converts data from complex to understandable and unintelligible to intelligible forms.
 It divides data in to different groups or classes according to their similarities and
dissimilarities.
11/27/21 181
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Objectives of Classification
 To organize data in to concise, logical and intelligible

form.
 To take the similarities and dissimilarities s between
various classes clear.
 To facilitate comparison between various classes of data.
 To help the researcher in understanding the significance of
various classes of data.
 To facilitate analysis and formulate generalizations.
11/27/21 182
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Basis of Classifications
 Geographical
 Demographic
 Behavioral and attributes
 Variables
 Chronological
 Good Characteristics
 Unambiguity, stable, flexibility, homogeneity, suitability, and exhaustiveness
11/27/21 183
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Tabulation
 It is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns. It is defined as the
“measurement of data in columns and rows”.
 Table format:
 Simple (contains only one variable)
 Complex (two or more variable in one table)
11/27/21 184
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Some of the objectives are:
 To clarify the purpose of enquiry
 To make the significance of data clear.
 To express the data in least possible space.
 To enable comparative study.
 To eliminate unnecessary data
 To help in further analysis of the data.
11/27/21 185
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Data Presentation
 Tables
 Bar charts
 Histograms
 Pie charts
 Ogives
 Pictograms
 Line graphs
11/27/21 186
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Benefit
 They help in presenting quantitative facts in

simple, clear and effective pictures.
 They make the whole data readily intelligible.
 They can be used for comparison purpose.
 They are useful in analyzing complex
economic theories.
11/27/21 187
DATA PROCESSING AND
PRESENTATION
 Benefits
They save much time in understanding

data.
Facts can be understood without doing
mathematical calculations.
They help in lo0cating statistical measures
such as median. quartile, mode etc
11/27/21 188
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF DATA
 Data Analysis
 Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis
 Parametric and Non-parametric Techniques
 Univariate, Bivariate and Multivariant Analysis
11/27/21 189
 Descriptive Techniques
 Frequency Distribution
 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean , Mode,
and Median
 Measures of Dispersion: Range, Standard
Deviation and Variance
 Measures of Shape: Kurtosis and Skewness
11/27/21 190
 Inferential Analysis
 Measures of Correlation: Simple and Ranking correlation coefficients
 Regression: Simple and Multiple (OLS and Logit)
 Measures of Significance: Z-score, t-test and F-distribution
 Measures of Associations
11/27/21 191
HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND TEST OF
SIGNIFICANCE
11/27/21 192
SIGNIFICANCE
11/27/21 193
SIGNIFICANCE
11/27/21 194
MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION
11/27/21 195
MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION
11/27/21 196
Chapter Six
Interpretation of Data
11/27/21 197
INTERPRETATION
 Meaning
 Interpretation refers to the technique of drawing inference from the collected facts
and explaining the significance of those inferences after an analytical and experimental
study.
 It is a search for broader and more abstract means of the research findings.
 If the interpretation is not done very carefully, misleading conclusions may be drawn.
 The interpreter must be creative of ideas he should be free from bias and prejudice.
11/27/21 198
INTERPRETATION
 Meaning
 Interpretation is the process by which meaning and significance is attached to the
analysis.
 Interpretation leads to explanations for descriptive patterns, identification of
relationships between categories, and theoretical developments.
11/27/21 199
INTERPRETATION
 Fundamental Principles of Interpretation

 Sound interpretation involves willingness on the part of the interpreter to see what is in
the data.
 Sound interpretation requires that the interpreter knows something more than the mere
figures.
 Sound interpretation demands logical thinking.
 Clear and simple language is necessary for communicating the interpretation
11/27/21 200
INTERPRETATION
 Importance of Interpretation
 It is through interpretation that the interpreter is able to know the abstract principles
lying in his conclusions.
 On the basis of the principles underlying his findings, a researcher can make various
predictions about the various other events which are unrelated to his area of findings.
11/27/21 201
INTERPRETATION
 Importance of Interpretation
 Interpretation leads to the establishment of explaining concepts.
 A researcher can appreciate only through interpretation, why his findings are and what
they are.
 The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study usually results in to
hypothesis for experimental research.
11/27/21 202
INTERPRETATION
 Steps Involved in Interpretation

 Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations he have found. He must
be able to see uniformity in diversified research findings so that generalization of
findings is possible.
 If any extraneous information is collected during the study, it must be considered while
interpreting the final result of research study.
11/27/21 203
INTERPRETATION
 Steps Involved in Interpretation

 The researcher can consult with those having insight in to the study who can point out
the omission and errors in logical arguments.
 The researcher must consider all relevant factors affecting the problem at the time of
interpretation.
 The conclusions appearing correct at the beginning may prove to be inaccurate later. So
researcher must not be in a hurry while interpreting.
11/27/21 204
PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
11/27/21 205
 At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that the data are
appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences, the data reflect
good homogeneity; and that proper analysis has been done through statistical
methods.
 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in
the process of interpreting results.
11/27/21 206
 The researcher’s task is not only to make sensitive

observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify
and disengage the factors that are initially hidden to the
eye.
 The task of interpretation is very much intertwined with
analysis and cannot be distinctly separated.
 There should be constant interaction between initial
hypothesis, empirical observation and theoretical
conceptions.
11/27/21 207
CONCLUSIONS AND GENERALIZATION
 Conclusions
The conclusion of a research paper

reaffirms the thesis sentence, discusses the
issues, and reaches a final judgment.
The conclusion is not a summary; it is a
belief based on your reasoning and on the
evidence you have accumulated.
11/27/21 208
CONCLUSIONS AND GENERALIZATION
 Good Conclusion
 Logically synthesized
 Systematic and brief
 Able to stand on its own
 Answers research question
 Contains theoretical and policy implications
 Setting agenda for further studies
11/27/21 209
GENERALIZATION
 In quantitative research, generalizability is

considered a major criterion for evaluating the
quality of a study.
 Generalizability is a thorny, complex, and
illusive issue even in studies that are considered
to yield high-quality evidence
 Findings are always embedded within a context
(make it difficult for generalization)
11/27/21 210
GENERALIZATION
 Approaches of Generalization
 Statistical generalization = quantitative
 Analytical generalization = qualitative
 Transferability
11/27/21 211
GENERALIZATION
 Generalizations
 A hasty generalization is where we fallaciously infer some
general claim from just a few (too few!) instances.
 A sweeping generalization is where we fallaciously apply
some general claim to a specific instance
 A hasty refutation of a generalization is where we point to
just a few (too few) cases to refute some general claim.
 Overgeneralization is the use of small and/or non-
representative samples of real data to make an inference that is
incorrect.
11/27/21 212
STATISTICAL FALLACIES
 Bias can be of different form.
 Preference Bias: It occurs when a research result

unduly reflects the researchers’ preference for it over
other possible results.
 Selection Bias: related with the selection of sample
 Information Bias: bias with collection and recording
of data
 Publication Bias
11/27/21 213
 Some Causes Of Bias

 Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is
inappropriate.
 Defective measuring device: In survey work, systematic bias
can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is biased.
 Non-respondents: individuals in the sample may not cooperate
 Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals
act differently when kept under observation
 Natural bias in the reporting of data:.
11/27/21 214
 Fallacies of Inconsistency: cases where something

inconsistent or self-defeating has been proposed or accepted.
 Fallacies of Inappropriate Presumption: cases where we
have an assumption or a question presupposing something
that is not reasonable to accept in the relevant conversational
context.
 Fallacies of Relevance: cases where irrelevant reasons are
being invoked or relevant reasons being ignored.
 Fallacies of Insufficiency: cases where the evidence
supporting a conclusion is insufficient or weak.
11/27/21 215
11/27/21 216
Chapter Seven
Research Report Writing
11/27/21 217
PRELUDE
The goal of any research project is a

report in which the researcher tells
others (readers) why and how the
research was conducted and the
implications of research findings.
11/27/21 218
MEANING AND TYPES
 Meaning
 A Report is a detailed description of what has been

done and how it has been done with respect to a
particular area or topic.
 Inaccurate, poorly written and incomplete reports
fails to achieve its purposes and may end up in
wrong decisions.
 Report is a self-explanatory statement of facts
relating to a specific subject and serves the purpose
of providing information for decision making and
follow up actions
11/27/21 219
 Types
 Practical Report VS Academic Report

 Technical Report Vs General Report
11/27/21 220
 Report writing is a process that takes time.
 Writing is unique, intellectual challenge.
 There is no mystery to becoming a good writer. (
good writers write well because they write often
and learn from experience)
 Good writers never work in isolation i.e. work
with others and seek constructive criticism.
11/27/21 221
PURPOSES OF A REPORT
Presentation of findings and results

Future references
Formal completion
Guidance for other researchers
Written evidence
11/27/21 222
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT
Clarity
◦ Simple words and with less semantics
◦ avoiding jargon
◦ Avoiding long quotations
Continuity
 (linking the different discussion in the report )
Consistency
◦ Avoiding duplication
Brevity (concise and exact use of words)

11/27/21 223
CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD REPORT
 Readability
◦ Understandable vocabulary
◦ Grammatically correct
◦ Proofread
 Interest and Appeal
 Judicious Selection of Materials
 Avoiding personal opinion
 Concentrate on Central Ideas
 Proper Reference
11/27/21 224
PREPARATION STEPS
1. Logical analysis of the subject matter

◦ Chronological
◦ Connections and association
◦ Contents and contexts
2. Preparation of the final outline
◦ Tentative table of content (report skeleton)
3. Preparation of the rough draft
◦ First time writing of the content of the report
◦ What comes to the mind will be?
11/27/21 225
PREPARATION STEPS
4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

◦ Reading and re-reading
◦ Checking, Revisions and Re-revisions
◦ How much? - Until the researcher convinced
5. Preparation of the final bibliography
◦ Preparing the list of materials consulted

6. Writing the final draft
11/27/21 226
STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH REPORT
 Preliminary
 Title page
 Acknowledgment
 Declaration
 Table of content
 List of tables
 List of figures
 Abstract/ executive summary
 Acronym
11/27/21 227
 Introduction
 Background
 Statement of the Problem
 Research Objectives
 Research Hypothesis or Questions (If any)
 Significance of the Study
 Delimitation of the Study
 Limitations of the Study
 Organization of the Report
 Literature Review
11/27/21 228
 Research Design (Methodology)

 Research Approach and Strategies
 Population and Sampling Procedures
 Data Source and Collection Procedures
 Data Presentation and Analysis Procedures
 Conceptualization and Operationalization
 Validity and Reliability
11/27/21 229
 Main Body
 Data Presentation
 Discussion on findings
 Better making the structuring in line with the objective
 Objectives based chapterization
 Summary
 Conclusions
 Recommendation
11/27/21 230
Supplementary Part
References
Appendixes
For instance questionnaires
Supporting tables
Authentications
11/27/21 231
MECHANICS OF REPORTS
 Style and physical design

◦ Fonts and margins
◦ Paragraphing
◦ Spacing
 Procedures
 Lay out
◦ Proper structuring of the report according to well defined outline
 Treatment of quotations
 The footnotes
◦ Supplementary values and cross referencing
◦ Bottom and consecutive
11/27/21 232
MECHANICS OF REPORTS
 Documentation style
 Citations
 Books, periodicals, journals, news papers
 Second hand citation (articles in a books edited by other )
 Treating multiple authors
 Alphabetical arrangement
 Punctuations and Abbreviations
 Use of Statistics , Charts and Graphs
 Reference Preparation
11/27/21 233
A BIT ADVISE
 Create time for your writing

 Write when your mind is fresh
 Find a regular writing place
 Set goals and achieve them
 Use word processing
 Generate a plan
 Get friends to read your work
11/27/21 234

MBABusiness Research by Robson Methods All

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MBABusiness Research by Robson Methods All

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

RIFT VALLEY UNIVERSITY DIRE DAWA

CAMPUS MASTERS OF BUSINESS

Chapter One: Introduction to Business Research

 Research is one of those words that we are likely to

 Meaning or Definition of Research

 “A systematic investigation to establish facts or collect information on a

 “ … a systematic, careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or

Why Business Research?

 Existence of an opportunity or problem may not be

It is designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not

 Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the

There are various bases to classify the research.

A. On the Basis of Objectives of Research

B. On the Basis of Approach of Research

 In action research, the researcher works in close collaboration with a group of

Descriptive research: These are more concerned with facts.

 Testing of new products. Business research tests the possible success of fresh

 Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses

 In-house research is required for professional and self development of the

 Studying the competition. Businesses frequently make use of research to study

 When information cannot be applied to a

Why Managers should Know Research?

 Facilitates good decision making

 Management’s limited exposure to research

1. Identifying, Evaluating and Formulating the Research Problems

2. Extensive Literature Survey

 Systematic Literature Review

3. Writing a Primary Synopsis

 Any research study, inductive or deductive undertaken for academic purpose

 Critical means looking at an expression from “why”

If you have difficulty thinking critically about what

 How up to date the literature should be?

 Should I deal with each reference separately?

 Should I include my opinion?

 What referencing style should I use?

4. Indentifying and Labeling Variables

In research the problem under study deals with

6. Preparing the Research Design

A research design is a plan that specifies the

7. Determining the Sample Design

There are several ways of collecting the

Data Collection Process

9. Data Processing, Analysis and Interpretation using Statistical Methods

10. Testing of Hypothesis

10. Preparation of the Report or Thesis

A report is a detailed description of what and how it

Problem Should Exhibit

 The research problem should represent conceptual

Problem Should Exhibit

Sources of Research Problem

Components Of A Research Problem

Technique In Defining A Research Problem

Technique In Defining A Research Problem

Points in Need of Attention

 Obtaining Voluntary and Informed Consent: A research project must be explained

 Handling Deception: If deception is necessary for the purpose of research, it

 Avoiding Conflicts of Interest: At first glance, an explicit dictum about conflict

Business Research Proposal

 It is a document that is typically written by a scientist, academic or practitioners

Benefits of writing a research proposal

General Proposal Guidelines

1. A clear statement of the overall aims and objectives of

 Research objectives indicate in more detail the