Culture, Language,

and Communication
 Culture and Social Cognition

 This has to do with how we interpret the actio

ns of others—the causal attributions we mak
e.

 Basically, the cultural differences in this area

refer to proneness to make dispositional vers
us situational attributions of others behavior.
 Definition of communication
 Message: Information and meaning exchanged duri
ng communication

 Encoding: Process by which people select, imbed

messages in signals, and send signals to others

 Signals: Specific verbal language and nonverbal be

haviors that are encoded when message sent

 Channels: Sensory modalities by which signals sen

t and messages retrieved

 Decoding: Process by which people receives signal

from encoder and translates those signals to meanin
gful messages
 Intercultural Communication
 Unlike intra-cultural communication where m
essage senders and receivers share the sam
e ground rules, intercultural communication i
s associated with a host of additional social
and psychological issues.
 Uncertainty
 To start, there is uncertainty or ambiguity concernin
g the ground rules by which the interaction should o
ccur.

 Given the pervasive influence of culture, it’s always

difficult to figure out the rules being employed by tw
o people from different cultures.

 And this uncertainty is inherent in verbal as well as n

onverbal communication, in both encoding and deco
ding modes.
 
 Uncertainty (cont.)
 How can we package messages into precise words t
o convey our thoughts as accurately as possible and
how can we interpret the sender’s messages exactly
as intended? 

 Uncertainty can easily mount to the point of utter mi

scommunication. Hence, uncertainty reduction is th
e initial major goal of intercultural communication. 

 Unless uncertainty is reduced, it’s impossible for se

nders and receivers to begin processing the intende
d message content.
 Conflict
 Once we engage in intercultural communication, so
me conflict and misunderstanding is inevitable. 

 Conflict arises when people’s behavior does not con

firm to our expectations.  

 We tend to interpret such behaviors as transgressio

ns against our values.

 Of course, uncertainty can contribute to this conflict.

 Context

 As we have said earlier, context has to do primarily

with how communication takes place when cultures
vary in context orientation. Here are several possible
combinations.
 
 1.       High Context with High Context

 2.       Low Context with High Context

 3.       Low Context with Low Context

 Context (cont.)

 But the “context of intercultural communication” als

o includes several other dimensions of cultural vari
ability:
 
 Individualism-collectivism,
 Power Distance,
 Uncertainty Avoidance, and
 Masculinity-femininity
CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON NONV
ERBAL COMMUNICATION
 Nonverbal behaviors: all behaviors that occur duri
ng communication that do not include verbal langua
ge

 Nonverbal channels are more important in under

standing meaning and emotional states of speak
ers than verbal language

 It is imperative to be most attentive to nonverbal cue

s that occur in communication
 The Types of Nonverbal Behaviors
 Culture and Gestures
 The American A-OK sign is an obscene gestures i
n may cultures of Europe

 Culture and Gaze

 Contact cultures engage in more gazing and mor
e direct orientation when interacting with others

 Culture and Interpersonal Space

 Arabs and Latin Americans interact with others at
closer distance than Americans
 The Functions of Nonverbal Behaviors
 Always keep in mind that Nonverbal behaviors s
erve as emblems, speech illustrators, conversati
on regulators, and convey emotions.
INTRACULTURAL AND INTERCULT
URAL COMMUNICATION
 Cultural Influences on Encoding

 Cultures differ in how nonverbal behavior is used

in communication

 Cultural Influences on Decoding

 Cultures influences decoding process through eth

nocentrism, cultural filters, emotions, value judgm
ents, stereotypes and expectations

 Decoding rules
 Intracultural communication
 Communication between people of the same
cultural background

 Interactants share same ground rules; they encod

e and decode using the same cultural codes

 Can be negative because of expectations created

by cultural filters and ethnocentrism

 We tend to read more than is intended

 Intercultural communication
 Communication between people of the differe
nt cultural background

 Interactants do not share same ground rules; the

y encode and decode using different cultural code
s

 Can lead to

 Uncertainty and ambiguity

 Conflict
 Barriers to Effective
Intercultural communication
1. Assumptions of similarities
2. Language differences
3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
4. Preconceptions and stereotypes
5. Tendency to evaluate
6. High anxiety or tension
Barriers to Intercultural Communicat
ion
 Source: Barna, L. M. (1997). Stumbling block
s in intercultural communication. In L. Samo
var and R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural commu
nication: A reader (pp. 370-379). Belmont CA:
Wadsworth.
 Barriers (cont.)
1. Assumptions of similarities
 We need to keep in mind that communicatio
n is a uniquely human trait shaped by cultu
re.
 In fact, communication itself is a product of
culture, and cultures vary in their assumpti
ons of similarities.
 Barriers (cont.)
2. Language differences
 The use of words which may be highly effec
tive at conveying meaning within a particul
ar culture often communicate unintended m
eanings across cultures.
 Add to this the nonverbal channel of comm
unication and you have a recipe for conflict
and misunderstandings.
 Barriers (cont.)
3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
 This is the single most frequent cause of br
eakdowns in the communication process a
cross cultures.
4. Preconceptions and stereotypes
 These are natural and inevitable psychologi
cal processes that have a strong influence
on our perceptions and communications.
 Barriers (cont.)
5. Tendency to evaluate
 We make attributions about the behavior of
others based on our own cultural values.
6. High anxiety or tension
 While some degree of anxiety may be cond
ucive to optimal performance, too much an
xiety or stress can lead to dysfunctional tho
ught processes and behaviors.
Improving Intercultural Communication: Concl
uding Remarks
 Mindfulness and uncertainty reduction
 Mindfulness offsets uncertainty and anxiety
 Uncertainty reduction leads to focus on the content of
signals and messages

 Face
 Should be mindful of face (public appearance of perso
n) in collectivist culture

 Emotion Regulation
 Controlling negative emotions aroused from conflict is i
mportant