Human Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy: The branch of science

concerned with the bodily structure of
humans, animals, and other living
organisms, especially as revealed by
dissection and the separation of parts.

Physiology is the study of the function of

body parts and the body as a whole. Some
specializations within each of these
sciences follow: Gross (macroscopic)
anatomy is the study of body parts visible
to the naked eye, such as the heart or
bones.
Membrane Structure
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure has two components:

1. Phospholipids arranged in a bilayer

2. Globular Proteins inserted in the lipid bilayer

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Membrane Structure
Cellular membranes have 4 components:

1. Phospholipid Bilayer
2. Transmembrane Proteins
3. Interior Protein Network
4. Cell Surface Markers

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Membrane Structure
• Membrane structure is visible using an electron microscope.

• Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) can show the 2 layers of a

membrane.

• Freeze-fracturing techniques separate the layers and reveal

membrane proteins.

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Fig. 5.3-1
Fig. 5.3-2
Fig. 5.3-3
Fig. 5.3-4
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1. Phospholipids
Phospholipid Structure (Chapter 3)

-glycerol – a 3-carbon polyalcohol acting as a backbone for the

phospholipid

-2 fatty acids attached to the glycerol

-phosphate group attached to the glycerol

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1. Phospholipids
The fatty acids are nonpolar chains of carbon and hydrogen.

-Their nonpolar nature makes them hydrophobic (“water-fearing”).

-The phosphate group is polar and hydrophilic (“water-loving”).

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1. Phospholipids
The partially hydrophilic, partially hydrophobic
phospholipid spontaneously forms a bilayer:
-fatty acids are on the inside
-phosphate groups are on both surfaces of the bilayer

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1. Phospholipids
•Phospholipid bilayers are fluid:
- Hydrogen bonding of water holds the 2 layers together
- Individual phospholipids and unanchored proteins can
move laterally through the membrane

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1. Phospholipids
•Phospholipid bilayers are fluid:
- Saturated fatty acids make the membrane less fluid than
unsaturated fatty acids

- Cholesterols make the membrane more rigid

- Warm temperatures make the membrane more fluid than
cold temperatures

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Fluid Mosaic Model

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2. Membrane Proteins
Membrane proteins have various functions:
1. Transporters
2. Enzymes
3. Cell Surface Receptors
4. Cell Surface Identity Markers
5. Cell-to-Cell Adhesion Proteins
6. Attachments to the Cytoskeleton

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Membrane Proteins
• Two types of membrane proteins
- Classified by how they are associated with the membrane

1. Peripheral membrane proteins

2. Integral membrane proteins

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Membrane Proteins
1. Peripheral membrane proteins

• Anchored to a phospholipid in one layer of the

membrane
• on the intracellular or extracellular face of the membrane

• Oossess nonpolar regions that are inserted in the

lipid bilayer

• Free to move throughout one layer of the bilayer

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1. Peripheral membrane proteins

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Membrane Proteins
2. Integral membrane proteins
• Span the lipid bilayer (transmembrane proteins)
• Nonpolar regions of the protein are embedded in the interior of the
bilayer
- Transmembrane Domain

• Polar regions of the protein protrude from both sides of the bilayer

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2. Integral membrane proteins

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Membrane Proteins
• Integral proteins possess at least one transmembrane domain
- Region of the protein containing hydrophobic amino acids
- Spans the lipid bilayer
- Usually alpha-helices
- Many receptors are integral proteins

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Membrane Proteins
• Extensive nonpolar regions within a transmembrane protein can
create a pore through the membrane.
• β sheets in the protein secondary structure form a cylinder called a β-barrel
• β-barrel interior is polar and allows water and small polar molecules to pass
through the membrane

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Membrane Transport
• Motion of substances in and out of the cell
• Cell membranes are Selectively permeable

• Two Types of Transport Mechanisms:

1. Passive Transport
2. Active Transport

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Membrane Transport
• Passive transport is movement of molecules through the membrane
in which no energy is required from the cell

• Active transport requires energy expenditure by the cell

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1. Passive Transport
• Passive transport is movement of molecules
through the membrane in which no energy is
required from the cell

• Molecules move in response to a concentration

gradient
- A concentration gradient is a difference between the
concentration on one side of the membrane and that on the
other side

• Passive transport mechanisms only movement

substances along the concentration gradient

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1. Passive Transport
• Passive transport mechanisms only movement substances along
the concentration gradient:
- Substances move from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration

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• Factors affecting passive diffusion:
• Steepness of the concentration gradient (eg. More is the difference in the
concentration gradient more faster will be the diffusion).
• Temperature ( temperature is responsible for diffusion rate).
• Mass of the diffusing substance.
• Surface area (large surface area of membrane increases the diffuision).
• Diffusion distance (at short distance diffusion will be faster)

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1. Passive Transport
• Mechanisms of Passive Transport:
1. Diffusion
- movement of solute molecules from high solute concentration to low solute
concentration

2. Osmosis
- movement of solvent water from high solvent concentration to low solvent
concentration

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1. Passive Transport
• Diffusion is movement of solute molecules from high concentration
to low concentration

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1. Passive Transport
• There are two types of diffusion
1. Simple Diffusion
2. Facilitated Diffusion

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1. Passive Transport
1. Simple Diffusion
• Substances pass directly through the
cell membrane
• The cell membrane has limited
permeability to small polar molecules,
water, and ions
• The motion of water across the
membrane is known as osmosis
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1. Passive Transport
1. Simple Diffusion
• The rate (molecules/s) of simple
diffusion depends on the degree of
concentration gradient
• As the gradient reaches equilibrium,
diffusion slows
• At equilibrium, substances pass in and
out of the membrane at equal rates

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Rate of Simple Diffusion vs Concentration

Rate

Concentration

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1. Passive Transport
2. Facilitated Diffusion
• Substances must pass through transported
proteins to get through the cell membrane
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable

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Passive Transport
Carrier proteins bind to the molecule that they transport across the
membrane.

Facilitated diffusion is movement of a molecule from high to low

concentration with the help of a carrier protein.
-is specific
-is passive
-saturates when all carriers are occupied

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Facilitated Diffusion
• Selective permeability: integral membrane proteins allow the cell to
be selective about what passes through the membrane.
- Channel proteins have a polar interior allowing polar molecules to pass
through.

- Carrier proteins bind to a specific molecule to facilitate its passage.

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Channel Proteins
• Channel proteins include:
- ion channels allow the passage of ions (charged atoms or
molecules) which are associated with water

- gated channels are opened or closed in response to a stimulus

– the stimulus may be chemical or electrical

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 ion channels
Fig. 5.10
Channel Proteins
• Ion channels allow the passage of ions (charged atoms or molecules)
across the membrane

• A concentration gradient of ions across the membrane creates a

membrane potential
- a membrane potential is a charge difference between the two sides of the
membrane

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 ion channels
Fig. 5.10

+
+ +
+ +
+ + +

+
+
Carrier Proteins
• Carrier proteins bind to a specific molecule to facilitate its passage.

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1. Passive Transport
2. Facilitated Diffusion
• Is Specific - a carrier protein transports only certain molecules or ions
• Is Passive - the direction of net movement is determined by the
relative concentrations on the substances inside an outside the cell
• Has a Saturation Point - rate of facilitated diffusion (molecules/s)
depends on gradient until all protein carriers are in use - saturation point

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Saturation of Facilitated Diffusion

Rate

Concentration

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Passive Transport
2. Osmosis
• Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of
high to low concentration of water
- movement of water toward an area of high solute
concentration

- in osmosis, only water is able to pass through the

membrane

- Osmosis moves water through aquaporins

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Osmosis
• Osmotic concentration is determined by the the
concentration of all solutes in solution

• Relative Osmotic Concentrations

• Hypertonic solutions: have a higher relative solute
concentration
• Hypotonic solutions: have a lower relative solute
concentration
• Isotonic Solutions: have equal relative solute
concentrations

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Fig. 5.13-1

Osmotic Balance
• Cells crenate in hypertonic
solutions
Fig. 5.13-3

Osmotic Balance
• Cells lyse in hypotonic
solutions
Fig. 5.13-2

Osmotic Balance
• Cells are maintained in
hypertonic solutions
Osmosis
• Organisms can maintain osmotic balance in different
ways:

1. Some cells use extrusion in which water is

ejected through contractile vacuoles.

2. Isosmotic regulation involves keeping cells

isotonic with their environment.

3. Plant cells use turgor pressure to push the cell

membrane against the cell wall and keep the cell rigid.

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2. Active Transport
Active transport

• Requires energy – ATP is used directly or indirectly to fuel active

transport

• Able to moves substances against the concentration gradient - from

low to high concentration
- allows cells to store concentrated substances

• Requires the use of carrier proteins

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Active Transport
• Carrier proteins used in active transport include:
-uniporters – move one molecule at a time
-symporters – move two molecules in the same direction
-antiporters – move two molecules in opposite directions

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Active Transport
Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump

• An active transport antiport mechanism

• Uses an antiporter to move 3 Na+ out of the cell and

2 K+ into the cell

• ATP energy is used to change the conformation of

the carrier protein

• The affinity of the carrier protein for either Na+ or K+

changes so the ions can be carried across the
membrane
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Active Transport
Sodium-potassium (Na+-K+) pump

• Used by animal cells to maintain a high internal

concentration of K+ ions and a low internal
concentration of Na+ ions

• Maintains a concentration gradient that is used to

power many other important physiological process

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Fig. 5.15-1
Fig. 5.15-2
Fig. 5.15-3
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Active Transport
Coupled transport
• Uses the energy released when a molecule moves by
diffusion to supply energy to active transport of a
different molecule

• A symporter is used

• Glucose-Na+ symporter captures the energy from Na+

diffusion to move glucose against a concentration
gradient

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Bulk Transport
• Bulk transport of substances is accomplished by
1. Endocytosis – movement of substances into the cell

2. Exocytosis – movement of materials out of the cell

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Bulk Transport
• Endocytosis occurs when the plasma membrane
envelops food particles and liquids.

1. phagocytosis – the cell takes in particulate matter

2. pinocytosis – the cell takes in only fluid

3. receptor-mediated endocytosis – specific

molecules are taken in after they bind to a receptor

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Bulk Transport
• Exocytosis occurs when material is discharged from
the cell.
• Vesicles in the cytoplasm fuse with the cell membrane and
release their contents to the exterior of the cell

• Used in plants to export cell wall material

• Used in animals to secrete hormones, neurotransmitters,
digestive enzymes

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Thank you…….