Force and load concepts

and Common Types of Application of Load

 Force is what causes a
rest object to move and
motioned object to rest.

 Load is what causes an

object to be deformed.

 A force has both
magnitude and direction,
making it a vector
quantity. It is measured
in the SI unit of newtons
and represented by the
symbol F.

Chapter 6-
 Stress concept
• In physics, stress is the force acting on the unit area of a
material. The effect of stress on a body is named as strain. 

COMMON STATES OF STRESS

• Simple tension: cable

F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Note: σ > 0 here ! Chapter 6-
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS

Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

• Simple shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R
Note:  = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6- 5
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

Chapter 6- 6
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0 h< 0
http://tecnologiapirineos.blogspot.com/2012/11/esfuerzos-tipos-de- Chapter 6- 7
esfuerzos.html
 Deformation and strain concepts
• Deformation: the change in dimensions due to
the load applications

•Strain:

Chapter 6-
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

Adapted from
extensometer specimen Fig. 6.2,
Callister 7e.

gauge
length

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 7e. (Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 1965.) Chapter 6-
 Some probes, samples or coupons

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWgnBNOy-rA

Chapter 6-
 A picture of a real setup

The result of mechanical testing is generally a

response curve or a (set of) number(s), in this case
a STRESS vs. STRAIN curve

Chapter 6-
Courtesy of Plastics Technology Laboratories, Inc 50 Pearl Street, Pittsfield, MA 01201
 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

TS
NECKING
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
engineering

FRACTURE
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RY9X_O8is-k
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YL91SZEU-y4 Chapter 6- 17
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
Elastic means reversible! elastic
Bonds stretch and but recover Non-Linear-
when load is released. elastic

Chapter 6- 2
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch p lanes
& planes still
shear sheared

elastic + plastic plastic

F
F
linear linear
elastic
Plastic means permanent!
elastic

plastic
Chapter 6- 3
 PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain, 

p lastic strain

Chapter 6- 14
 YIELD STRENGTH, y

Some materials do NOT exhibit a distinct transition from elastic to plastic region
under stress, so by convention a straight line is drawn parallel to the stress strain
curve with 0.2 % strain. The stress at the intersection is called the yield stress !

Chapter 6-
 LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: 
(also known as Young's modulus) E F
• Hooke's Law (Linear): 1   Under Load

=E Linear-
elastic
• Poisson's ratio, : L
   L L

No load

 F
metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 - simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless
Chapter 6- 10
Same cross section, same thickness 0.76mm, same weight on
the tip of the beam

Wanberg, John. Composite Materials: Fabrication handbook #1. Wolfwgang Publications, 2010

Chapter 6-
 Other Elastic Properties
 M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G: G simple
 torsion
=G test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
= V
E E
G K
2(1  ) 3(1  2)
Chapter 6 -
 STIFFNESS: COMPARISON
Tungsten carbides Tungsten alloys
Aluminum nitride
CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
Silicon Brass
Cast Al-alloys
100
Tin GFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
Silica glass
Medium carbon steel Commercially pure lead
Hardwood: oak, across grain
10
Young's modulus (GPa)

Concrete
Epoxies (EP)

Plaster of Paris
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Polyethylene (PE)
1
Polyester (UP)
Ionomer (I)

0,1
Leather

Silicone elastomers (SI, Q) Flexible Polymer Foam (LD)

0,01

Butyl rubber (IIR)

0,001

Ceramics and glasses Metals and alloys Polymers and elastomers Hybrids: composites, foams, natural materials

Chapter 6-
 STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Low alloy steel
CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
Silicon nitride
1000
Brass
Tungsten carbides Bamboo
Cast Al-alloys

Aluminum nitride
High carbon steel Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
Tensile strength (MPa)

100 Silica glass

Polyamides (Nylons, PA)
Glass ceramic
Epoxies (EP)
Leather

Commercially pure lead

Polyester (UP)
Rigid Polymer Foam (HD)
10
Granite
Tin

Cement
Plaster of Paris
Butyl rubber (IIR)
1 Concrete

Flexible Polymer Foam (VLD)

Ceramics and glasses Metals and alloys Polymers and elastomers Hybrids: composites, foams, natural materials

Chapter 6-
STIFFNESS Vs STRENGTH

Chapter 6-
 A CLOSE-UP
10000

Tool steel, AISI S5, tempered at 205°C (shock-resisting)

Metglas 2605SC (iron based)

Tensile strength (MPa)

1000
Cast iron, pearlitic malleable, EN GJMB 600-3
Carbon steel, AISI 1050, oil quenched & tempered at 6

Cast iron, gray, flake graphite, EN GJL 350

Carbon steel, AISI 1020, annealed

100

Cast iron, white, low alloy, EN GJN HV350 (former BS 1B)

Cast iron, gray, flake graphite, EN GJL 100

10

50 100 200 500

Young's modulus (GPa)

Chapter 6-
Going deep: Elastic properties explanation

S=F/

=S/ao 

E=S/ao

Chapter 6-
Going deep: Strength properties
explanation

We will back to
this later
Chapter 6-
NON-LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Some materials will exhibit a non-linear elastic behavior
under stress ! Examples are polymers, gray cast iron,
concrete, etc…

Chapter 6-
 DUCTILITY, %EL
• Plastic tensile strain at failure:
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile Ao
Lo Af Lf
stress,  larg er %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.
Engineering tensile strain, 

https://www.youtube.com/results?
search_query=tensile+test+brittle+ductil+materials

• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.

--Reason: crystal slip does not change material volume.
Chapter 6- 19
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
 TOUGHNESS & RESILIENCE
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larg er toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain, 

RESILIENCE is energy stored in the material w/o plastic deformation ! Ur = σy2 / 2 E

TOUGHNESS is total energy stored in the material upon fracture !

Chapter 6- 20
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

y
Ur   d
0
If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur  y  y
2
Adapted from Fig. 6.15,
Callister 7e.
Chapter 6 -
TRUE STRESS & STRAIN
σT = σ (1+ ε )

εT = ln (1+ε)

The material does NOT get weaker past M

TS

engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain Chapter 6-
 HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression. https://www.innovatest-europe.com/es/vickers/
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)
Chapter 6- 21
 Hardness: Measurement
• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range
20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

Chapter 6 -
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

Chapter 6 -
HARDNESS !!

1. Relatively simple and cheap

technique
2. Non-destructive
3. Related to many other
mechanical properties

Chapter 6-
 HARDENING
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0
unload
re load


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:
T  C T   n n= 0.15 (some steels)
to n= 0.5 (some copper)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/L o)
Chapter 6- 22
 Flexure test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=10&v=gDAzNjigcGU&feature=emb_logo

Chapter 6-
 Compression test

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKiXLL5-pW0
https://www.concreteconstruction.net/how-to/materials/six-most-
common-causes-of-low-cylinder-breaks_o
Chapter 6-
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws
(defects, etc.). Large sample to sample variability.
• Statistics
n
 xn
– Mean x
n
1
n 2
 x i  x  
2

– Standard Deviation s 
 n 1 
 
where n is the number of data points
Chapter 6 -
 Design or Safety Factors
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit.
• Factor of safety, N Often N is
y between
working  1.2 and 4
N
• Example: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d
y
working  1045 plain
carbon steel:
N y = 310 MPa Lo
220,000N 5 TS = 565 MPa

 d2 / 4
F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
Chapter 6 -
 SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Note: For materials selection cases related to

mechanical behavior, see slides 22-4 to 22-10.
Chapter 6- 24