Primary Manufacturing Processes

• Casting
• Forming
• Welding

Secondary Manufacturing Processes

• Machining and Grinding

• Coatings
 METAL CASTING
PROCESSES
 Sand Casting
 Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Foundry Practice
 Casting Quality
 Metals for Casting
 Product Design Considerations
 Casting Terminology

Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

 Casting Terminology
Pattern: An approximate duplicate of the final casting used to form the
mould cavity.

Moulding material: The material that is packed around the pattern and
then the pattern is removed to leave the cavity where the casting material
will be poured.

Flask: The rigid wood or metal frame that holds the moulding material.
Cope: The top half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.

Drag: The bottom half of the pattern, flask, mould, or core.

Core: An insert in the mould that produces internal features in the casting,
such as holes.

Core print: The region added to the pattern, core, or mould used to locate
and support the core.
Steps in making Casting
Pattern making
Core making
Molding
Melting and pouring
Cooling
Removal
Cleaning of the cast products
Inspection

Types of Casting :
Expendable Mould
Multiple Use Mould

Sand Casting :
Expendable Mould casting
process uses sand as moulding material
 Pattern Material
A pattern may be made up of wood, plastic, rubber,
wax etc. The imp. Properties which the pattern matl.
must possess are:

• light in weight
• strong, hard and durable so that it may be
resistant to wear and abrasion to corrosion and
chemical reaction
• easily available at low cost
• dimensionally stable(unaffected by temp, humidity
• repairable and reused
• able to take good surface finish
 Pattern
It is the replica of the object to be made by the
casting process with some modifications.
Functions of the Pattern
1. A pattern is used to make a mold cavity
2. A pattern may contain projections known as core
prints if the casting needs to be made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten
metal in the mold cavity may be a part of the pattern.
4. Proper patterns with good surface finish reduce
casting
defects.
5. A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall
cost
Commonly used pattern materials
are
Wood
Metals
Plastics
Plaster of paris
Wax
It is cheap and easily available.
Can be shaped easily.
Light in weight.
Good surface finish.
Can be preserved for long time by applying
varnish to it.
Strong and durable.
Have good surface finish.
Do not deform on storage.
Maintains dimensional
tolerances.
They have low weights.
High strength.
High resistance to wear.
Smooth surfaces.
Durable and cheaper.
Plaster of paris is usually used in making
master dies and molds, as it gains hardness
quickly, with a lot of flexibility when in the
setting stage.
Variety of patterns are used in casting and
the choice depends on the configuration
of casting and number of casting required
 Single-piece pattern
 Split pattern
 Follow board pattern
 Cope and drag pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Loose-piece pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Skeleton pattern
Fig.: Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
Schematics of Different Patterns
Pattern allowances
1.     Shrinkage or contraction allowance
2.     Draft or taper allowance
3.     Machining or finish allowance
4.     Distortion or camber allowance
5.     Rapping allowance

Draft / Taper allowance

Shrinkage Allowance
Liquid shrinkage: refers to the reduction in volume
When liquid metal changes to solid state. Risers are
Used to compensate this shrinkage.

Solid shrinkage: refers to the reduction in volume

when solid metal cools to the ambient temperature.
to compensate this reduction shrinkage allowance
is given on the patterns
Material Dimension Shrinkage allowance (inch/ft)

Grey Cast Iron Up to 2 feet

0.125
2 feet to 4 feet
0.105
over 4 feet
0.083
Up to 2 feet 0.251
Cast Steel
2 feet to 6 feet 0.191
over 6 feet 0.155
Up to 4 feet 0.155
Aluminum
4 feet to 6 feet 0.143
over 6 feet 0.125
Magnesium Up to 4 feet 0.173
Over 4 feet 0.155
 Aluminum Piston

Aluminum piston for an internal combustion engine. (a) As

cast; (b) after machining.
 Machining Allowance
Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

Up to 12 0.12
Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20
20 to 40 0.25

Up to 6 0.12
Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25
20 to 40 0.30

Up to 8 0.09
Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12
12 to 40 0.16
Distortion / Camber allowance
Rapping Allowance
To facilitate easy withdrawal of the pattern, it is
sometimes rapped all around the vertical faces to
slightly enlarge the mold cavity. Hence the original
pattern dimension should be reduced to compensate
for this increase in dimension of the mold cavity.
However it is difficult to quantify this allowance.

Core and Core prints

 Core & Core Making
 Cores are compact mass of core sand that when placed in mould
cavity at required location with proper alignment does not allow
the molten metal to occupy space for solidification in that
portion and hence help to produce hollowness in the casting.
 The environment in which the core is placed is much different
from that of the mold.
 In fact the core has to withstand the severe action of hot metal
which completely surrounds it.
 Types of Core
1) Classification based on material
a) sand cores
b) metal cores
2) Classification based on position
a) Horizontal core
b) Vertical core
c) balanced core
d) ram up core
e) hanging core
f) drop core
g) Ram up core
h) cores supported on chaplets
 Core Boxes
 Basically, core box is a pattern for making
cores.
 They are employed for ramming cores in
them.
 Core boxes provide the required shape to
the core sand.
Half core box
This is the most common type
of core box.
The two identical halves of a
symmetrical core prepared in
the half core box.
Two halves of cores are pasted
or cemented together after
baking to form a complete core.
Dump core box
Dump core box is similar in
construction to half core box.
The cores produced do not
require pasting, rather they are
complete by themselves.
A dump core-box is used to
prepare complete core in it.
 Core print
When a hole is needed in the casting, a core is placed in
the mould cavity to produce the same.
The core has to be properly located or positioned in the
mould cavity on pre-formed recesses or impressions in the
sand.
To form these recesses or impressions for generating seat
for placement of core, extra projections are added on the
pattern surface at proper places.
These extra projections on the pattern are known as core
prints.
 Chaplets
• Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either
to prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces made of
parent metal.

• These are placed in mould cavity suitably which positions core

and to give extra support to core and mould surfaces.

• When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the

chaplet melts and fuses itself along with molten metal and
forms a part of the casting.
 Chills
• Used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal
casting mold.
• Normally metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to
thickness of the casting which prevents directional
solidification, a chill can be strategically placed to promote it.
• In some casting, it is required to produce a hard surface at a
particular place in the casting.
• Chills are provided on that portion to imparts hardness of
that particular surface by fast cooling of that particular
portion.
 Mould
• A mold or mould is a hollowed-out block that is filled with a
liquid material like plastic, glass, metal etc....
• Consists : Sand Preparation and Mold Making
 Moulding sands
 Principle ingredients
(1) Silica sand grains (2) Clay (3) Moisture and (4)
miscellaneous material
(1) Silica sand grains: Granular quartz; contains 80 to 90 % Sio2
; Product of quartz rocks or decomposition of granite which
is composed of quartz and feldspar.
Feldspar decomposes becomes clay
Silica sand imparts refractoriness, chemical resistivity and
permeability to sand.
(2) Clay : are those particles of sand (under 20 microns
diameter) that fails to settle at a rate of 25 mm per minute
when suspended in water.
Fine slit and true clay
 Moulding sands
 Most moulding sand contains 5-20 % clay.
(3) Moisture: furnishes bonding action of clay when water is added
to clay.
Bonding quality depends upon the maximum thickness of water
film.
(4) Miscellaneous materials : Oxide of iron, limestone, magnesia,
soda, and potash.
The impurities should be below 2 %
 Types of Moulding sand
 Green sand : It is a mixture of silica sand with 18-30 % clay
; Water from 6 to 8 %.
 Dry sand : Green sand i.e. dried or baked after the mould is
made called dry sand. Suitable for large casting.
 Loam sand: Clay content is high 50% or so & dry hard.
Used for loam moulding for large casting.
 Facing sand : Used next to surface of pattern. Possess high
strength and refractoriness. It is made up of silica sand and
clay without used sand. Use different form of carbons to
prevent the metal from burning. The layer of facing sand
ranges from 20-30 mm.
 Backing sand: Sand is used to back up the facing sand and
to fill whole volume of the flask. Old, repeatedly used
moulding sand is mainly used for this purpose.
 Types of Moulding sand
 System sand: In machining moulding , this sand is used.
sand is used to fill whole flask.
The used sand is cleaned and reactivated by the addition of
water binders and special additives. This is known as
system sand. The whole mould is filled with this sand, the
strength, permeability and refractoriness of the the sand is
higher than backing sand.
Parting sand: is used to keep green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also allow the sand on the parting surface of the
cope and drag without clinging. The clean clay free silica
sand serves this purpose.
Core sand: Used in making cores some times called oil sand.
This is a silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed
of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other binding
materials.
Molding Materials and their properties
Mold materials include molding sand, backing sand,
Facing sand, core sand etc. The important Properties
are:
• Porosity
• Flowability
• Collapsibility
• Adhesiveness
• Cohesiveness or Strength
• Refractoriness
 Base Sand
Silica sand is most widely used. Also zircon sand,
chromite sand and olivine sand can be used

Binders
• clay binders
• organic binders
• inorganic binders
Most common clay binders are:
Kaolinite /fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) &
Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Bentonite has higher moisture absorbing power

Moisture required for bonding action of the clay

 Core
Full‑scale model of interior surfaces of part
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold
cavity and the core to form the casting's external and internal
surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity
during pouring, called chaplets

Figure (a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible
chaplet design, (c) casting with internal cavity.
Cores – made of sand aggregates
– Possess: (1) Strength (2) Permeability (3)Ability
to withstand heat (4) Collapsibility
– Anchored by core points
– Chaplets are used to keep the core from moving
 Two Categories of Casting
Processes
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to
make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of
metal and can be used to make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
 Overview of Sand Casting
 Most widely used casting process, accounting for a significant
majority of total tonnage cast
 Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including metals with
high melting temperatures, such as steel, nickel, and titanium
 Castings range in size from small to very large

 Production quantities from one to millions

A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg

(1500 lb) for an air compressor frame (photo
courtesy of Elkhart Foundry).
©2007 John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. M P
Groover,
Fundamentals of
Casting Examples

Typical gray-iron castings

used in automobiles,
including transmission
valve body (left) and hub
rotor with disk-brake
cylinder (front). Source:
Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of
General Motors
Corporation.

A cast transmission
housing.
Sand Casting
 Steps in Sand Casting

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Steps in making Sand Casting
1. Pattern making
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning of the cast products
Pouring basin : This is otherwise called as bush or
cup. It is circular or rectangular in shape. It collects
the molten metal, which is poured, from the ladle.
Spruce : It is circular in cross section. It leads the
molten metal from the pouring basin to the spruce
well.
Spruce Well : It changes the direction of flow of the
molten metal to right angle and passes it to the
runner.
Runner : The runner takes the molten metal from
spruce to the casting. Ingate: This is the final stage
where the molten metal moves from the runner to
the mold cavity.
Slag trap : It filters the slag when the molten metal
moves from the runner and ingate. It is also placed in
the runner.
 Pure metals solidifies at a constant temp. equal to its
freezing point, which same as its melting point.
 The process of solidification starts with nucleation,
the formation of stable solid particles within the
liquid metal. Nuclei of solid phase, generally it start
appearing at a temperature below the freezing
temperature. The temp. around this goes down and
is called super cooling or undercooking.
 In pure metals super cooling is around 20% of
the freezing temp.
 In case of pure metals fine grains are formed near
the wall of the mould.
 Casting Process

Cast products

Advantages
• any intricate shape can be cast
• any ferrous or non ferrous metals & alloys are castable
• Tools required for casting molds are simple &
inexpensive
Limitations
• surface finish and dimensional accuracy is less in sand
casting process
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of sand
held together by thermosetting resin binder

Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or

cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and placed over
a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin .
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell‑molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto
the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the
surface to form a hard shell; (3) box is repositioned so that loose uncured
particles drop away;
 Shell Molding
Steps in shell‑molding: (4) sand shell is heated in oven for several
minutes to complete curing; (5) shell mold is stripped from the
pattern;
 Shell Molding

From www.janfa.com

Steps in shell‑molding: (6) two halves of the shell mold are

assembled, supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and
pouring is accomplished; (7) the finished casting with sprue
removed.
 Shell Molding Process

3 to 8% phenolformaldehyde / ureaformaldehyde thermosetting resin

230 to 350o C

Lubricants like zinc/calcium stearate improve flowability

 Advantages of Shell Mould Casting
• Good surface finish (Ra 1.25 to 3.75 microns)
• High dimensional tolerance
• Machining of casting is reduced in some cases, eliminated
• Castings weighing upto 450 kgs can be cast by this proces
• Thin sections (upto 0.25 mm) can be cast by this process
Limitations
• Patterns are expensive
• Castings weighing more than 450 kgs cannot be made
• Highly complicated shapes cannot be made

Applications
• Cast iron, Aluminium and copper alloys are cast by this process
Sodium silicate Molding
The refractory material is coated with a
sodium Silicate binder.

After compaction CO2 is passed Through the

mold. CO2 chemically reacts with Sodium
silicate to cure or harden the binder.

After Curing the pattern is withdrawn from

the mold
Sodium silicate moulding
 Mixture of sand and 1.5% - 2% sodium
silicate
 The mixture is packed around the pattern
 The sand becomes harden by blowing CO2
gas as Na2 oSio2 becomes a stiff gel.
 This gel is responsible for giving the
necessary strength to the mould.
 The sand used must be dried with minimum
moisture content (0.25%) and free of clay.
 Advantages
• good dimensional tolerance because of the
hard rigid mold
• good surface finish of the cast products

Limitations
• Poor shake out property
• Difficulty in reclaiming used sand
• Poor collapsibility of harder sand normally
requires special additives to improve the
quality
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax
Process)
A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory
material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
 "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition of
"invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
 It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
 Investment Casting

Figure: Steps in investment casting: (1) wax patterns are produced,

(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree
 Investment Casting

Figure : Steps in investment casting: (3) the pattern tree is coated with
a thin layer of refractory material, (4) the full mold is formed by
covering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to make
it rigid
 Investment Casting

Figure :Steps in investment casting: (5) the mold is held in an inverted

position and heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the
cavity, (6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, the molten
metal is poured, and it solidifies
 Investment Casting

Figure: Steps in investment casting: (7) the mold is broken away

from the finished casting and the parts are separated from the
sprue
 Investment Casting

Figure: A one‑piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils

made by investment casting (photo courtesy of Howmet Corp.).
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of investment casting:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required ‑ this is
a net shape process
 Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
 Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made
of plaster of Paris (gypsum ‑ CaSO4‑2H2O)
 In mold-making, plaster and water mixture
is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
 Plaster mixture readily flows around
pattern, capturing its fine details and good
surface finish
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Advantages of plaster mold casting:
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross‑sections
 Disadvantages:
– Mold must be baked to remove moisture, which can cause
problems in casting
– Mold strength is lost if over-baked
– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so limited to
lower melting point alloys
 Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that
mold is made of refractory ceramic material
that can withstand higher temperatures than
plaster
 Can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and
other high temperature alloys
 Applications similar to those of plaster
mold casting except for the metals cast
 Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar
 Permanent Mold Casting
Processes
 Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every casting

 In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused

many times
 The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and
closing
 Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast
iron
 Molds used for casting steel must be made
of refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures
 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure : Steps in permanent mold casting: (1) mold is

preheated and coated
 Permanent Mold Casting

Figure :Steps in permanent mold casting: (2) cores (if used) are inserted
and mold is closed, (3) molten metal is poured into the mold, where it
solidifies.
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of permanent mold casting:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
 Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simpler part geometries compared to sand casting because
of need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold
Casting
 Due to high mold cost, process is best suited to
high volume production and can be automated
accordingly
 Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump bodies,
and certain castings for aircraft and missiles
 Metals commonly cast: aluminum, magnesium,
copper base alloys, and cast iron
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which
molten metal is injected into mold cavity
under high pressure
 Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called
dies; hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes
 Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot chamber machine
2. Cold chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die
 High production rates - 500 parts per hour
not uncommon
 Applications limited to low melting point
metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and
magnesium
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure : Cycle in hot chamber casting: (1) with die closed and plunger
withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber (2) plunger forces
metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification.
Cold‑Chamber Die Casting Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
 High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
 Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use
on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Figure : Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and ram
withdrawn, molten metal is poured into the chamber
Horizontal Type
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Figure : Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (2) ram forces metal to

flow into die, maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
 Molds for Die Casting
 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron

 Ejector pins required to remove part from

die when it opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Advantages and Limitations
 Advantages of die casting:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength
to casting
 Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low metal points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die
 Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the

mold is rotated at high speed so centrifugal
force distributes molten metal to outer
regions of die cavity
 The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semi centrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
 In some operations, mold rotation
commences after pouring rather than before
 Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
 Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape
is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to
radially symmetric forces
True Centrifugal Casting

Figure : Setup for true centrifugal casting.

Semi centrifugal Casting
 Semi centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings rather than tubular parts
 Molds are designed with risers at center to
supply feed metal
 Density of metal in final casting is greater
in outer sections than at center of rotation
 Often used on parts in which center of
casting is machined away, thus eliminating
the portion where quality is lowest
 Examples: wheels and pulleys
Centrifuge Casting
 Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located
away from axis of rotation, so that molten
metal poured into mold is distributed to
these cavities by centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not required as
in other centrifugal casting methods
 Evaporative Polystyrene Process (EPS) / Lost Foam Process /
Full Mold Process / Evaporative Foam Process

Coating of the polystyrene

Pattern to provide a smoother
casting
Procedural steps in EPS Casting Process
1. Beads of polystyrene are pre-expanded and introduced
into die cavity.
2. A steam cycle fully expands the beads and help in fusing
them together
3. For complex patterns different pattern sections are
assembled and glued together to form a cluster. Pouring
cup and sprue are also attached in a similar fashion
4. The foam pattern cluster is coated with a refractory
material
5. After the coating has dried the pattern assembly is placed
in a vented flask and molding sand is compacted around
the pattern by using a vibration table to ensure proper and
uniform compaction
6. Molten metal is poured into that portion of the pattern
which forms the pouring cup and sprue
Advantages of the EPS Process
• Need for pattern withdrawal is eliminated
• No binders or other additives are required for the sand which
is reusable
• Cores are not required
• Shake out of the casting in the unbonded sand is easier
• Consideration for draft and parting lines can be ignored

Limitations of the EPS Process

• A new pattern is needed for every casting
• This process is economic only when mass scale castings are produc

Applications
The EPS process has been applied to mass produce castings of
Automobile engines
 Squeeze-Casting Process

Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This

process combines the advantages of casting and forging.
 Casting processes, and their advantages and limitations.
PROCESS ADVANTAG ES LIMITATIONS
Sand Almost any metal is cast; no limit to size, Some finishing required; somewhat
shape or weight; low tooling cost. coarse finishl wide tolerances.
Shell mold Good dimensional accuracy and surface Part size limited; expensive patterns
finish; high production rate. and equipment required.
Expendable pattern Most metals cast with no limit to size; Patterns have low strength and can
complex shapes be costly for low quantities.
Plaster mold Intricate shapes; good dimensional Limited to nonferrous metals; limited
accuracy and finish; low porosity. size and volume of production; mold
making time relatively long.
Ceramic mold Intricate shapes; close tolerance parts; Limited size.
good surface finish.
Investment Intricate shapes; excellent surface finish Part size limited; expensive patterns,
and accuracy; almost any metal cast. molds, and labor.
Permanent mold Good surface finish and dimensional High mold cost; limited shape and
accuracy; low porosity; high production intricacy; not suitable for high-melting-
rate. point metals.
Die Excellent dimensional accuracy and Die cost is high; part size limited;
surface finish; high production rate. usually limited to nonferrous metals;
long lead time.
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts with good quality; Equipment is expensive; part shape
high production rate. limited.
 Furnaces for Casting Processes
 Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
– Cupolas
– Direct fuel fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces
 Various numbers of chemical reactions take place in different
zones of
cupola.
 Well:-
 The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed
inside the cylindrical shell of the cupola is called as well of the
cupola
 Combustion zone :-
 The combustion zone of Cupola is also called as oxidizing zone. It
is located between the upper of the tuyeres and a theoretical
level above it. The total height of this zone is normally from 15
cm. to 30 cm.
 The heat generated in this zone is sufficient enough to meet the
requirements of other zones of cupola.

 A temperature of about 1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this zone.

Few exothermic reactions takes place in this zone these are
 represented as:
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat Si + O2 → SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 → 2MnO + Heat
 Reducing zone :-
 Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective zone which is
located between the upper level of the combustion zone and the
upper level of the coke bed. In this zone, CO2 is changed to CO as a
result of which the temperature falls from combustion zone
temperature to about 1200°C at the top of this zone. The important
chemical reaction takes place in this zone which is given as under.
 CO2 + C (coke) → 2CO +
 Melting zone:-
Heat
 The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of coke bed is
termed as melting zone of Cupola. The metal charge starts melting in
this zone and gets collected in the well.
 the chemical reaction given as under.
 3Fe + 2CO → Fe3C + CO2

 Preheating zone:-
 Preheating zone starts from the upper end of the melting zone and
continues up to the bottom level of the charging door. This zone
contains a number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux and metal
charge.
 The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room
temperature to about 1090°C before entering the metal charge to the
melting zone.
 It is simple and economical to operate
 It can refine the metal charge, removing impurities out of
the slag.
 It can be used to reuse foundry by-products and to
destroy other
pollutants such as VOC from the core-making area.
 High melt rates
 Chemical composition control
 Efficiency of cupola varies from 30 to 50%.

 Less floor space requirements comparing with those

furnaces with same capacity.
Since molten iron and coke are in contact with
each other, certain elements like Si, Mn are lost
and others like sulphur are picked up. This
changes the final analysis of molten metal.
Close temperature control is difficult to
maintain.
 Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with tapping
spout near base
 Used only for cast irons
– Although other furnaces are also used, the largest tonnage of
cast iron is melted in cupolas
 The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux, and
possible alloying elements, is loaded through a
charging door located less than halfway up
height of cupola
 Direct Fuel Fired Furnaces
Small open-hearth in which charge is heated by
natural gas fuel burners located on side of
furnace
 Furnace roof assists heating action by
reflecting flame down against charge
 At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release
molten metal
 Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper base alloys and aluminum
 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with
burning fuel mixture
 Sometimes called indirect fuel‑fired furnaces
 Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high‑temperature steel alloy
 Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
 Three types used in foundries: (a) lift ‑out type,
(b) stationary, (c) tilting
 Crucible Furnaces

Figure: Three types of crucible furnaces: (a) lift‑out crucible, (b)

stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and (c)
tilting-pot furnace.
 Electric‑Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an electric arc
 High power consumption, but electric‑arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting capacity
 Used primarily for melting steel
 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to develop magnetic field
in metal
 Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
 Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action in liquid metal
 Since metal does not contact heating elements, environment can be
closely controlled to produce molten metals of high quality and purity
 Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are common applications
in foundry work
 Ladles
 Moving molten metal from melting furnace to mold
is sometimes done using crucibles
 More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure : Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b) two‑man
ladle.
 Additional Steps After Solidification
 Trimming
 Removing the core
 Surface cleaning
 Inspection
 Repair, if required
 Heat treatment
 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting ‑line
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
 For brittle casting alloys and when cross sections
are relatively small, appendages can be broken
off
 Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack ‑sawing,
band‑sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
 Removing the Core
If cores have been used, they must be removed
 Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out
of casting as the binder deteriorates
 In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
 In rare cases, cores are removed by
chemically dissolving bonding agent
 Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
 Surface Cleaning
 Removal of sand from casting surface and otherwise
enhancing appearance of surface
 Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with coarse
sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing, buffing, and
chemical pickling
 Surface cleaning is most important for sand casting
– In many permanent mold processes, this step can be
avoided
 Defects are possible in casting, and inspection is
needed to detect their presence
 Heat Treatment
 Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
 Reasons for heat treating a casting:
– For subsequent processing operations such as machining
– To bring out the desired properties for the application of the
part in service
 Casting Quality
 There are numerous opportunities for things to
go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product
 The defects can be classified as follows:
– General defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process
 Classification of casting defects
• Surface Defects • blow
• scar
• drop
• scab
• penetration
• Internal Defects
• blow/gas holes
• porosity
• pin holes
• inclusions and dross

• Visible Defects • rat tail • hot tear

• swell • shrinkage
• misrun • mold shift
• cold shut • core shift
 DEFECTS IN CASTINGS
Molding sand too too fine
Sand erosion or heavily rammed

Low permeability Hydrogen inclusion

Poor venting, high moisture

Buoyancy of liq. metal

Inadequate packing Poor mold strength

High fluidity
Surface and internal defects
 General Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity

Figure: Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

 General Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure : Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

 General Defects: Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure: Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

 General Defects: Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts amount of
molten metal available in last region to freeze

Figure : Some common defects in castings: (d) shrinkage cavity

 Sand Casting Defects: Sand Blow
Balloon shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases
during pouring

Figure : Common defects in sand castings: (a) sand blow

 Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or
slightly below surface of casting

Figure : Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

 Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may
penetrate into sand mold or core, causing casting
surface to consist of a mixture of sand grains and
metal

Figure : Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

 Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and
drag

Figure: Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

 Foundry Inspection Methods
 Visual inspection to detect obvious defects
such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws
 Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
 Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other
tests concerned with quality of cast metal
 Metals for Casting
 Most commercial castings are made of
alloys rather than pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties of
product are better
 Casting alloys can be classified as:
– Ferrous
– Nonferrous
Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron
 Most important of all casting alloys
 Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times
that of all other metals combined
 Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular
iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and
(5) alloy cast irons
 Typical pouring temperatures  1400C
(2500F), depending on composition
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
 The mechanical properties of steel make it
an attractive engineering material
 The capability to create complex geometries
makes casting an attractive shaping process
 Difficulties when casting steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most
other casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At such temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten
metal must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Aluminum
 Generally considered to be very cast able
 Pouring temperatures low due to low melting
temperature of aluminum
– Tm = 660C (1220F)

 Properties:
– Light weight
– Range of strength properties by heat treatment
– Easy to machine
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Copper Alloys
 Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze
 Properties:
– Corrosion resistance
– Attractive appearance
– Good bearing qualities

 Limitation: high cost of copper

 Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller
blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys:
Zinc Alloys
 Highly castable, commonly used in die
casting
 Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm
= 419C (786F)
 Good fluidity for ease of casting
 Properties:
– Low creep strength, so castings cannot be subjected to
prolonged high stresses
 Product Design
Considerations
 Geometric simplicity:
– Although casting can be used to produce complex part
geometries, simplifying the part design usually
improves castability
– Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
 Simplifies mold‑making

 Reduces the need for cores

 Improves the strength of the casting

 Product Design
Considerations
 Corners on the casting:
– Sharp corners and angles should be avoided, since they
are sources of stress concentrations and may cause hot
tearing and cracks
– Generous fillets should be designed on inside corners
and sharp edges should be blended
 Product Design
Considerations
 Draft Guidelines:
– In expendable mold casting, draft facilitates removal of
pattern from mold
 Draft = 1 for sand casting

– In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid in removal

of the part from the mold
 Draft = 2 to 3 for permanent mold processes

– Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used

 Draft
 Minor changes in part design can reduce need
for coring

Figure : Design change to eliminate the need for using a core: (a) original
design, and (b) redesign.
 Product Design Considerations
 Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish:
– Significant differences in dimensional accuracies
and finishes can be achieved in castings, depending
on process:
 Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for sand

casting
 Good dimensional accuracies and finish for die

casting and investment casting

 Product Design
Considerations
 Machining Allowances:
– Almost all sand castings must be machined to achieve
the required dimensions and part features
– Additional material, called the machining allowance, is
left on the casting in those surfaces where machining is
necessary
– Typical machining allowances for sand castings are
around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)
 Costs Comparison for Different Casting Processes

Economic comparison of making a part by different casting processes. Note that

because of the high cost of equipment, die casting is economical for large production
runs. Source: The North American Die Casting Association.
 DEFECTS IN CASTINGS
Splattering
during pouring

Insufficient fluidity
Low superheat
Slow pouring rate
Cross section too thin Visible Defects

Common in alloys

Improper riser design Poor collapsibility