Chapter 5

Cognitive explanations
of learning
 Chapter objectives
• Identify the key principles of cognitive
learning theory and contrast these
with the behavioural approach
• Describe three forms of the
information processing model of
learning (multistore, levels of
processing and connectionist)
• Distinguish between a range of
cognitive styles and comment on their
impact on learning
(Cont’d next slide)
 Chapter objectives (cont’d)

• Explain the role of metacognition in

learning and memory
• Identify four key principles of
constructivism and discuss ways of
putting these into practice in the
classroom
Chapter 5 concept map
 Cognitive learning theory
Focuses on:
• internal mental processes and their role
in learning
• making meaning out of information and
experience
• how learners manipulate new and
familiar information
• learning as a process of acquiring new
ways of processing information and
revising existing processes
 The information processing
approach
• Depicts how mental processes operate
• See the human mind as a computer
that processes information from
external sources, then stores and
retrieves it
• Thinking is a rational process
• Memory is central to information
processing
 The multistore model
of information processing
• Depicts information processing as a
sequence of discrete stages
• Each stage has a different processing
function (Cont’d next slide)

<DTO: insert Fig. 5.2 (p. 138,

Ed. Psych.)>

The multistore model of information processing

 The multistore model
of information processing (cont’d)
• Sensory register: new information enters
through the senses and is stored for less
than a second
• Short-term memory (STM): a temporary
storage place with the capacity to store
approximately seven items
• Strategies for remembering information in
STM:
– chunking is when related items are
grouped into a single meaningful unit
– rehearsal is where information is repeated
and practised to aid storage and retrieval
(Cont’d next slide)
 Multistore model
of information processing (cont’d)

• Long-term memory (LTM) is a

permanent storage facility for
information
• Types of LTM:
– episodic – memories of events
– semantic – memories about language
and the world around us
– procedural – memories about
procedures for performing a skill
 The levels of processing model
Focuses on the depth of processing
and how this affects our ability to
recall information:
• deep processing is where
information has our full attention
and is analysed and associated with
existing knowledge, thus enhancing
recall
• shallow processing is where
information is processed
superficially and soon forgotten
Connectionist model
• The brain is
depicted as a
complex network
of interconnected
units of
information
• Information is
stored in
patterns of
connectivity
(neural
networks)
 Why and how learners forget
Information processing models suggest
we forget because:
• we fail to pay adequate attention to
information during the sensory register
and short-term memory (STM) stages
• STM is limited in capacity, so we do not
remember everything
• long-term memory (LTM) decays
• interference occurs – new memories
interfere with LTMs, and this makes
retrieval difficult
• we do not use the right cues to retrieve
information – cue-dependent forgetting
 Information and knowledge

• Information becomes knowledge when

we act upon it cognitively to make
meaning for ourselves
• Types of knowledge:
– declarative (knowing that)
– procedural (knowing how)
– conditional (knowing when and how)
 Strengths and limitations of the
information processing approach

Strengths
• Depicts the complexity of cognitive
processing
• Allows for close analysis of cognitive
processes and thus helps educators
understand how learners think
• Emphasises the importance of memory
and how to enhance recall
• Depicts the interconnectedness of
cognitive processes and memory
 Limitations
• Sequential depictions of information
processing do not represent the
complexity of neural networks
• There is over-reliance on the computer
as an analogy for how humans think
• The model fails to consider
environmental, genetic and cultural
influences on information processing
 Metacognition: Managing
cognitive processes
• Thinking about thinking
• Metacognition is an executive control
process overseeing cognitive activity; it
includes self-monitoring and self-
regulation
 Metacognitive knowledge
• Person knowledge is knowledge about
your own cognition and your
understanding of others as cognitive
processors
• Task knowledge is the knowledge that
different tasks require different
cognitive skills and approaches
• Strategy knowledge is the knowledge of
a range of metacognitive strategies
including planning, monitoring and
evaluating
Examples of metacognitive strategies
 Metacognitive experiences

• Metacognitive experiences include

feelings associated with particular
cognitive activities (such as anxiety
when you realise you do not understand
what the lecturer is talking about)
• Metacognitive experiences are connected
to self-esteem (e.g. if we feel confident
about regulating our cognitive
processing, we will feel more positive
about ourselves and our abilities)
Dimensions of metacognition
 Metacognitive development

• Metacognition typically develops as

children develop the increasing capacity
for abstract thought, as well as the
ability to self-reflect and self-regulate
• Some research shows evidence of
metacognition in younger children, but
the skill develops most notably among
adolescents
Metacognitive strategies and learning
• Research suggests a positive
relationship between performance on
academic tasks and learners’ ability to
use metacognitive strategies
(Lucangeli, Coi & Bosco, 1997)
• Studies of students with learning
disabilities show that metacognitive-
strategy instruction enhances learners’
thinking and social skills (Rosenthal-
Malek, 1997)
 Metacognitive strategies across
cultures
• Sociocultural factors may influence
the ways individuals think about
themselves and their own thinking
(i.e. their metacognitive knowledge
and strategy use)
• Research findings on cross-cultural
differences in metacognitive strategy
use are equivocal, but some differences
between cultures have been noted (see
text, p. 148)
 Cognitive style
• Individuals have preferred ways
of perceiving, processing and
remembering information – that is,
they have different cognitive styles
• Individuals also have preferences for
approaching learning and learning
contexts – that is, they have different
learning styles
 Perceptual style:
Field dependence–independence
• Field-dependent learners perceive
items, events or information as part of
a broader context, or ‘field’. They
depend on that context to help them
understand and perceive
• Field-independent learners perceive
individual items, events and
information analytically, as distinct and
independent from the broader context,
or field
 What is your perceptual style?

Can you find a gargoyle, a key, a hat, five dwarves

and a fairy in this picture?
 Conceptual tempo:
impulsivity–reflectivity
• Impulsive learners have a cognitive
preference for rapid problem-solving
• Reflective learners have a cognitive
preference for taking time to analyse
and reflect on problems; they tend to
respond more slowly and deliberately
when completing tasks
 Deep and surface learning
• Learners with a deep approach to learning
are typically intrinsically motivated to
study and are interested in taking time to
make meaning of the learning experience
for themselves:
– they tend to use problem-solving
strategies (e.g. questioning, planning
and evaluating) to maximise their
understanding
• Learners with a surface approach typically
have extrinsic motivations and use
memorisation strategies to learn
• Different approaches to learning may be
used in different contexts, depending on
the purpose
 Sociocultural factors and
cognitive style
• Sociocultural factors have been found
to influence learners’ preferred ways of
thinking and learning
• Social structures and processes
influence the types of activities
learners engage in and value
• These structures, in turn, have a
powerful effect on cognitive
development and preferred cognitive
styles
 Approaches to learning in the
classroom
• There is some research support for
matching students’ preferred cognitive
and learning styles to classroom
practices
• Aptitude–treatment interaction is
the relationship between learner
characteristics and the characteristics
of the learning situation
 Constructivism
• Constructivism is an explanation
of learning that views it as a self-
regulated process that builds on
learners’ existing knowledge and in
which learners are active participants
• Psychological constructivism focuses
on individual learners and on how they
construct their own knowledge, beliefs
and identity
• Social constructivism acknowledges
the role of social and cultural factors in
shaping learning
Key principles of constructivism

• Learners are active participants

• Learners are self-regulated
• Social interaction is necessary for
effective learning
• Individuals are encouraged to
make sense of information for
themselves
 Constructivism in the
classroom context
• Encourage learner-centred experiences
and activities
• Provide opportunities for students to
work together
• Assist novice learners to develop
expertise
Encouraging learner-centred
experiences and activities
In discovery learning, the learner
actively manipulates materials or ideas
in the learning environment, and
discovers connections between them:
• guided discovery is problem-solving
accompanied by teacher direction
• open discovery is problem-solving
without close monitoring from the
teacher
 Providing opportunities for
students to work together
• Cooperative learning means organising
classroom activities so that students
must work together to gain rewards for
themselves and the group
• Collaborative learning is where students
work in groups with more autonomy and
somewhat less teacher involvement
than in cooperative learning
• Peer-assisted learning encourages
peers to help one another to learn and,
in turn, to learn by teaching (this may
involve cross-age tutoring or peer
tutoring)
 Assisting novice learners to
develop expertise

• Cognitive apprenticeships occur when

an ‘expert’ (more experienced person)
guides a ‘novice’ learner and helps the
learner to learn
• The learning process is seen as a
partnership
• Reciprocal teaching combines teacher
intervention and student-directed learning:
– peers assist one another; learning is
guided by an expert who scaffolds group-
thinking processes and problem-solving
 Strengths and limitations of
constructivism
Strengths
• Acknowledges learners as active
‘constructors’ of their own meaning
• Attaches importance to prior learning
and background knowledge
• Encourages social networks in learning
environments
• Provides practical guidelines for
educators who want to encourage
student interaction and groupwork in
their classrooms
(Cont’d next slide)
 Limitations
• Encouraging student-centred learning
may be time-consuming
• Teachers – especially in high schools –
face pressures regarding curriculum
coverage, which may limit their ability to
implement constructivist principles
• Developing groupwork skills takes time
and experience – students need specific
skills, and not all groupwork is efficient
and effective
• Some teachers may be daunted by
classroom-management concerns when
managing groupwork
 Chapter review
• Cognitive learning theory
• The information processing approach
• Metacognition: Managing cognitive
processes
• Cognitive style
• Constructivism