TRIANGULATION

different approaches on the

same problem

(Multi-methods / Mixed methods

approach)
 Types of triangulation
Denzin (1979:140)

 Time triangulation
 Space triangulation
 Combined levels of triangulation (individual,
group, organizational/societal)
 Theoretical triangulation
 Investigator triangulation
 Methodological triangulation
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

• What happened? How did it happen? What

did that event mean to a specific group of
people?

• Refining and clarifying questions through

theory (finding explanatory categories).

• Historical writing.
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Main focus areas:
• Intellectual history (ideologies over time),
• Political history (political processes, law),
• Cultural history (production of people’s work /
history of different cultures)
and
• Social history (social groups,experiences of
students, teachers, parents).
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH
(Kerlinger, 1970)
“that in which the independent variable
or variables have already occurred
and in which the researcher starts
with the observation of a dependent
variable or variables”.

(independent variable cannot be controlled)

 HISTORICAL RESEARCH

EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH

 Co-relational (or causal)Study:

Spotting the antecedents of a
present condition.
 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
EX-POST FACTO RESEARCH
Criterion Group (or causal-
comparative) Design:
Comparing some subjects where
the variable is present with similar
subjects where the variable is
absent.