EC 205

NETWORK THEORY
UNIT – I INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS:
Circuit concept – R-L-C parameters
Voltage and current sources
Independent and dependent sources
Source transformations
Kirchhoff’s laws
network reduction techniques
series, parallel, series parallel
Network: The interconnection of two or more circuit
elements (voltage sources ,resistors , inductors and
capacitors) is called an electrical network. If the
network contains at least one closed path is called
circuit.

Every circuit is a network , but all the networks are not

circuit.
Active Components (have directionality)
Voltage and current sources

Passive Components (Have no directionality)

Resistors, capacitors, inductors
(with all the initial conditions are zero)

4
 Ohm’s Law
I=V/R

I = Current (Amperes) (amps)

V = Voltage (Volts)

R = Resistance (ohms)

Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854)

How you should be
thinking about
electric circuits:

Voltage: a force that

pushes the current
through the circuit (in
this picture it would be
equivalent to gravity)
How you should be
thinking about
electric circuits:

Resistance: friction that

impedes flow of current
through the circuit
(rocks in the river)
How you should be
thinking about
electric circuits:

Current: the actual

“substance” that is
flowing through the
wires of the circuit
(electrons!)
Basic Electrical Quantities
Basic quantities: current, voltage and power
Current: time rate of change of electric charge
I = dq/dt
1 Amp = 1 Coulomb/sec
Voltage: electromotive force or potential, V 1 Volt = 1
Joule/Coulomb = 1 N·m/coulomb
Power: P=IV
1 Watt = 1 Volt·Amp = 1 Joule/sec

Lect1 EEE 202 9

Overview of Circuit Theory
Power is the rate at which energy is being absorbed or
supplied.
Power is computed as the product of voltage and
current:
p t   v t  i  t  or P  VI
Sign convention: positive power means that energy is
being absorbed; negative power means that power is
being supplied.
Active vs. Passive Elements
Active elements can generate energy
Voltage and current sources
Batteries
Passive elements cannot generate energy
Resistors
Capacitors and Inductors (but CAN store energy)

Lect1 EEE 202 11

Energy Storage Elements
Capacitors store energy in an electric field.
Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.
Capacitors and inductors are passive elements:
Can store energy supplied by circuit
Can return stored energy to circuit
Cannot supply more energy to circuit than is stored.
 Types of sources

Independent sources :
1. Voltage source
2. Current source

Dependent sources:
3. Voltage dependent voltage source
4. Voltage dependent current source
5. current dependent voltage source
6. current dependent current source
Ideal voltage source:

•An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance so that

changes in load resistance will not change the voltage supplied.

•An ideal voltage source gives a constant voltage, whatever be the

current
A simple example is a 10V battery. For example, a 1ohm resistor or a 10o ohm
resistor could be connected to it; the voltage across both resistors would be 10V but the
currents would be different.
An ideal voltage source provides a prescribed
voltage across its terminals irrespective of the
current flowing through it. The amount of
current supplied by the source is determined by
the circuit connected to it.
 Ideal voltage sources

Various representations of an electrical system

Practical voltage source:

Practical voltage source has an internal resistance (greater than zero), but we
treat this internal resistance as being connected in series with an ideal voltage
source.
An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance
Ideal current source:

An ideal current source is a circuit element that

maintains a prescribed current through its terminals
regardless of the voltage across those terminals.

A ideal current source gives a constant current whatever

the load is.
If you have a 2A current source for example:
-with a 3 ohm resistor it would automatically change the voltage to 6V
-with a 30 ohm resistor it would automatically change the voltage to 60V
but the current would be 2A whichever resistor was connected.
An ideal current source provides a
prescribed current to any circuit
connected to it. The voltage generated by
the source is determined by the circuit
connected to it.

Symbol for ideal current

source
Practical current source:

Practical current source has an internal resistance, but we treat this internal
resistance as being connected in parallel with an ideal current source.

An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.

The sources described so far have the
capability of generating a prescribed
voltage or current independent of any
other element within the circuit. Thus,
they are termed independent sources.
There exists another category of sources, however,
whose output (current or voltage) is a function of some
other voltage or current in a circuit. These
are called dependent (or controlled) sources.

A different symbol, in the shape of a diamond, is used

to represent dependent sources and to distinguish them
from independent sources.
Dependent sources :

Dependent sources behave just like independent voltage and current

sources, except their values are dependent in some way on another
voltage or current in the circuit. A dependent voltage source is characterized
by depending on a voltage or current somewhere else in the circuit.
A dependent source has a value that depends on another
voltage or current in the circuit.
The symbols typically used to represent
dependent sources are depicted below. The table
illustrates the relationship between the source
voltage or current and the voltage or current it
depends on—vx or ix, respectively—which can be
any voltage or current in the circuit.

Symbols for dependent

sources
Simple Circuits Series circuit
All in a row
1 path for electricity
1 light goes out and the
circuit is broken

Parallel circuit
 Many paths for electricity
 1 light goes out and the
others stay on
Resistors
A resistor is a circuit element that dissipates electrical
energy (usually as heat)
Real-world devices that are modeled by resistors:
incandescent light bulbs, heating elements (stoves,
heaters, etc.), long wires
Resistance is measured in Ohms (Ω)

Lect1 EEE 202 27

Resistors in Series
A single loop circuit is one which has only a single
loop.
The same current flows through each element of the
circuit - the elements are in series.
Resistors in Series
Two elements are in series if the current that flows
through one must also flow through the other.

Series
R1 R2
Resistors in Series
Consider two resistors in series with a voltage v(t) across them:

Voltage division:
i(t)
R1
v1 (t )  v(t )
+ +

R1 v1(t) R1  R2
-
v(t) R2
v2 (t )  v(t )
+

R2 v2(t) R1  R2
- -
Resistors in Series
 If we wish to replace the two series resistors with a
single equivalent resistor whose voltage-current
relationship is the same, the equivalent resistor has a
value given by

Req  R1  R2
Resistors in Series
 For N resistors in series, the equivalent resistor has a
value given by

R1
R2 Req

R3

Req  R1  R2  R3    RN
Resistors in Parallel
When the terminals of two or more circuit elements
are connected to the same two nodes, the circuit
elements are said to be in parallel.
Resistors in Parallel
Consider two resistors in parallel with a voltage v(t) across
them:
Current division:
i(t)
R2
i1 (t )  i (t )
+
i1(t) i2(t)
R1  R2
v(t) R1 R2 R1
i2 (t )  i (t )
R1  R2
-
Resistors in Parallel
 If we wish to replace the two parallel resistors with a
single equivalent resistor whose voltage-current
relationship is the same, the equivalent resistor has a
value given by

R1 R2
Req 
R1  R2
Resistors in Parallel
 For N resistors in parallel, the equivalent resistor
has a value given by
R3

Req
R1 R2

1
Req 
1 1 1 1
  
R1 R2 R3 RN
Parallel
Two elements are in parallel if they are connected
between (share) the same two (distinct) end nodes.
R1

R1

R2
R2

Parallel Not Parallel

Lect1 EEE 202 37

Open Circuit
What if R =  ? i(t)=0

The Rest +
of the
Circuit v(t)

–
i(t)=0
i(t) = v(t)/R = 0

Lect1 EEE 202 38

Short Circuit
What if R = 0 ? i(t)

The Rest +
of the
Circuit v(t)=0

v(t) = R i(t) = 0

Lect1 EEE 202 39

Series resistors & voltage division

Let’s say we want to find v2

v
v2 = iR2 where, i
R 1 R 2
R2
 v2  v
R 1 R 2 - Voltage Division Rule

- Principle of Voltage Division


Note that if R2 >> R1, then v2 v
Series resistors & voltage division

i R1 R2

+ v1  + v2 
v
Series resistors & voltage division

i=0 R1 R=

+ v1  + v2 
v If R2 is replaced with open circuit,
the resistance would be 

R2
v2  v  v2 v
R1  R 2

R1
v1  v  v1  0
R1  R 2
Parallel resistors & current division

+ +

v v Let’s say we want to find i2

 

v  R1R 2 
i2  where, v  iR eq  i 
R2  R1  R 2 

R1 - Current Division Rule

 i2  i
R1  R 2 - Principle of Current Division
Parallel resistors & current division

R1
i2  i  i2  i
R1  R 2

R2
i1  i  i1  0
R1  R 2

R1
i2  i  i2  0
R1  R 2

R2
i1  i  i1  i
R1  R 2
Series-Parallel Combinations of Inductance and
Capacitance
Inductors in Series
All have the same current

di di di
v L v L v L
dt dt
1 1 3 3

dt
2 2

v  v v v 1 2 3

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 45

To Determine the Equivalent Inductance
v v v v 1 2 3

di di di
v L L L
dt dt dt
1 2 3

di
v  (L  L  L )
dt
1 2 3

di
v L
dt
eq

L L L L
eq 1 2 3

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 46

The Equivalent Inductance

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 47

Inductors in Parallel

All Inductors have the same voltage across

their terminals.

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 48

 1
 vd
t

i   i (t )
L
1 1 0
t0
1

1
 vd
t

i   i (t )
L
2 2 0
t0
2

1
 vd
t

i   i (t )
L
3 3 0
t0
3

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 49

i i i i 1 2 3

1 1 1
i       vd  i (t )  i (t )  i (t )
t

L L L 
1 0 2 0 3 0
t0
1 2 3

1
 vd  i (t )
t

i
L
0
t0
eq

1 1 1 1
  
L eq
L L L 1 2 3

i (t )  i (t )  i (t )  i (t )
0 1 0 2 0 3 0

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 50

Summary for Inductors in Parallel

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 51

Capacitors in Series

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 52

Capacitors in Parallel

ECE 201 Circuit Theory I 53

Parallel Capacitors
i  i1  i2  i3  ...  iN
dv dv dv dv
i  C1  C2  C3  ...  C N
dt dt dt dt
 N
 dv dv
   C K   Ceq
 k 1  dt dt
Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ....  C N
The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected
capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitance.

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 54

Series Capacitors

1 1 1 1 1
    ... 
Ceq C1 C2 C3 CN

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 55

Series Capacitors
v(t )  v1 (t )  v2 (t )  ...  v N (t )
1 t 1 1 1 1 t
Ceq id  ( C1  C2  C3  ...  C N )id
q (t ) q (t ) q (t ) q (t )
  
Ceq C1 C2 CN
The equivalent capacitance of series-connected
capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

1 1 1 C1C2
  Ceq 
Ceq C1 C2 C1  C2
Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 56
Table

Ch06 Capacitors and Inductors 57

 Source
transformation
Another circuit simplifying technique

It is the process of replacing a voltage source vS in series

with a resistor R by a current source iS in parallel with a
resistor R, or vice versa
R
a
a

vs + is R


b b

Terminal a-b sees: For this circuit to be equivalent, it

Open circuit voltage: vs must have the same terminal
Short circuit current: vs/R charateristics
 Source Transformations

A method called Source Transformations will allow the transformations of a voltage

source in series with a resistor to a current source in parallel with resistor.

R
a a

vs +
-
is R

b b

The double arrow indicate that the transformation is bilateral , that we can start with either
configuration and drive the other
Source transformation

Another circuit simplifying technique

It is the process of replacing a voltage source vS in series with
a resistor R by a current source iS in parallel with a resistor
R, or vice versa

a R
a
iy
is R
vs +
ix 

b
b

Note: current through R (hence power) for both circuits is not the same

i.e. ix  iy
 R
a
a

is RL
vs RL iRL
+
- iL

b
b

vs R
iL  iL  is
R  RL R  RL
Equating we have ,

vs R vs
 is  is  OR v s  Ri s
R  RL R  RL R
Branch

A branch is any portion of a circuit with two

terminals connected to it. A branch may consist
of one or more circuit elements. In practice, any
circuit element with two terminals connected to
it is a branch.

Definition of a
Node

A node is the junction of two or more branches (one often refers to the
junction of only two branches as a trivial node). The figure below illustrates
the concept.

Definitions of node and

Loop

A loop is any closed connection of branches.

Various loop configurations are illustrated below.

Definition of a
loop
Mesh

A mesh is a loop that does not contain other

loops.

Definition of a
mesh
Example 1
Find vo in the circuit shown below using source transformation
Example 1
Example 2

Find io in the circuit shown below using source transformation