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2
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PROPERTIES OF
HARDENED
CONCRETE
Properties of hardened concrete:
 Strength (compressive, tensile & flexure)

 Elastic properties
 Modulus of elasticity

Creep- Factors affecting creep, effect of creep.

Shrinkage- Factors affecting shrinkage, plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage,

autogeneous shrinkage, carbonation shrinkage
Strength of Concrete
• The compressive strength of concrete is one of the
most important and useful properties of concrete.
• In most structural applications concrete is employed
primarily to resist compressive stresses.
• Therefore, the concrete making properties of various
ingredients of mix are usually measured in terms of
the compressive strength.
• Compressive strength is also used as a qualitative
measure for other properties of hardened concrete.
• No exact quantitative relationship between
compressive strength and flexural strength, tensile
strength, modulus of elasticity, wear resistance, fire
resistance, or permeability have been established nor
are they likely to be.
 It should be emphasised that compressive strength gives only an approximate
value of these properties and that other tests specifically designed to determine
these properties should be useful if more precise results are required.

 The compressive strength of concrete is generally

determined by testing cubes or cylinders made in
laboratory or field or cores drilled from hardened
concrete at site or from the non-destructive testing of the
specimen or actual structures.
• Strength of concrete is its
resistance to rupture.
• It may be measured in a
number of ways, such as,
strength in compression,
in tension, in shear or in
flexure.
• When concrete fails
under a compressive load
the failure is essentially a
mixture of crushing and
shear failure.
• For a given cement and acceptable aggregates, the strength that
may be developed by workable, properly placed mixture of
cement, aggregate and water (under the same mixing, curing and
testing conditions) is influenced by:
(a ) Ratio of cement to mixing water;
(b) Ratio of cement to aggregate;
(c ) Grading, surface texture, shape, strength and
stiffness of aggregate particles;
(d) Maximum size of aggregate.

• In the above it can be further inferred that water/cement ratio

primarily affects the strength, whereas other factors
indirectly affect the strength of concrete by affecting the
water/ cement ratio.
 1. Water/Cement Ratio
• Strength of concrete primarily depends upon the strength of cement
paste.
• It has been shown in Chapter I that the strength of cement paste
depends upon the dilution of paste or in other words, the strength of
paste increases with cement content and decreases with air and
water content.
• In 1918 Abrams presented his classic law in the form:

• Abrams water/cement ratio law states that the strength of concrete is only dependent upon
water/cement ratio provided the mix is workable.
• Strictly speaking, it was Feret who formulated in as early as
1897, a general rule defining the strength of the concrete paste
and concrete in terms of volume fractions of the constituents
by the equation
 In this expression the volume of air is also included because it is
not only the water/ cement ratio but also the degree of
compaction, which indirectly means the volume of air filled
voids in the concrete is taken into account in estimating the
strength of concrete.

 It can be seen that lower water/cement ratio could be used when

the concrete is vibrated to achieve higher strength, whereas
comparatively higher water/cement ratio is required when
concrete is handcompacted.

 In both cases when the water/cement ratio is below the practical

limit the strength of the concrete falls rapidly due to
introduction of air voids.
• There is a lot of difference between the theoretical strength of concrete and actual
strength of concrete.
• Actual strength of concrete is much lower than the theoretical strength
estimated
• The actual reduction of strength is due to the presence of flaws.
• Griffith postulated his theory on the flaws in concrete.
• He explains that the flaws in concrete lead to a high stress concentrations in
the material under load, so that a very high stress is reached in and around
the flaws with the result that the material gets fractured around this flaw
while the average stress on the material, taking the cross section of the
material as a whole, remains comparatively low.
• The flaws vary in size.
• The high stress concentration takes place around a few of the larger flaws.
• This situation leads to failure of the material at a much lower stress intensity
considering the whole process.
• Presence of bigger flaws brings down the actual strength to a
much lower value than the theoretical strength.
• Cement paste in concrete contains many discontinuities such as
voids, fissures, bleeding channels, rupture of bond due to
drying shrinkage and temperature stresses etc.
• It has been difficult to explain how exactly these various flaws
contribute to the reduction in actual strength of concrete.
• However, Griffith’s theory which explains the failure of concrete
has been accepted to satisfactorily explain the failure of brittle
materials such as concrete.
 Gain of Strength with Age
• The concrete develops strength with continued hydration.
• The rate of gain of strength is faster to start with and the rate gets
reduced with age.
• It is customary to assume the 28 days strength as the full strength of
concrete.
• Actually concrete develops strength beyond 28 days also.
• Earlier codes have not been permitting to consider this increase of strength
beyond 28 days for design purposes.
• The increase in strength beyond 28 days used to get immersed with the
factor of safety.
• With better understanding of the material, progressive designers have been
trying to reduce the factor of safety and make the structure more economical.
• In this direction, the increase in strength beyond 28 days is taken into
consideration in design of structures.
• Some of the more progressive codes have been permitting this practice.
 The clause states “There is normally a gain of strength beyond
28 days. The quantum of increase depends upon the grade and
type of cement, curing and environmental conditions etc.
 The design should be based on 28 days characteristic strength
of concrete unless there is an evidence to justify a higher
strength for a particular structure due to age”
 Many a time it may be necessary to estimate the strength of concrete at an
early age.
 One may not be able to wait for 28 days.
 Many research workers have attempted to estimate the strength of concrete at 1, 3
or 7 days and correlate it to 28 days strength.
 The relationship between the strength of concrete at a lower age and 28 days
factors such as compound composition of
depends upon many
cement, fineness of grinding and temperature of curing
etc.
 Furthermore mixes with low water/cement ratio gains strength, expressed as a
percentage of long term strength, more rapidly than that of concrete with
higher water/cement ratio.
 This is presumably because the cement particles are held at a closer interval
in case of low water/cement ratio than that of higher water/cement ratio, in
which case there is a much better possibility for the formation of continuous
system of gel which gives more strength.
 Accelerated Curing test
• In the acclerated curing test the standard cubes are cast, they are covered with top
plate and the joints are sealed with special grease to prevent drying.
• Within 30 minutes of adding water, the cubes having sealed effectively, are placed in
an air-tight oven which is then switched on.
• The oven temperature is brought to 93°C in about one hour time.
• It is kept at this temperature for 5 hours.
• At the end of this period the cubes are removed from oven, stripped, cooled, and
tested.
• The time allowed for this operation is 30 minutes.
• The strength of concrete is determined within 7 hours of casting and this acclerated
strength shows good relationship with 7 and 28 days strengths of normally cured concrete.
• Fig. 7.4 shows relationship between acclereated strength and normally cured concrete
strength at 7 and 28 days.
• One of the main factors that affects the rate of gain of strength is the fineness of
cement
• . It has been estimated that particles of cement over 40 micron in size contribute to the
compressive strength of concrete only over long periods, while those particles smaller
than 25 to 30 micron contribute to the 28 days strength, those particles smaller than 20 to
25 micron contribute to the 7 days strength, and particles smaller than 5 to 7 micron
contribute to the 1 or 2 days strength.
 Effect of Maximum size of Aggregate on Strength
 At one time it was thought that the use of larger size aggregate
leads to higher strength.
 This was due to the fact that the larger the aggregate the lower is
the total surface area and, therefore, the lower is the requirement
of water for the given workability
 . For this reason, a lower water/cement ratio can be used which will
result in higher strength.
 However, later it was found that the use of larger size aggregate did
not contribute to higher strength as expected from the theoretical
considerations due to the following reasons.
 The larger maximum size aggregate gives lower surface area for
developments of gel bonds which is responsible for the lower
strength of the concrete.
 Secondly bigger aggregate size causes a more heterogeneity in the
concrete which will prevent the uniform distribution of load when
stressed.
 When large size aggregate is used, due to internal bleeding, the
transition zone will become much weaker due to the development
of microcracks which result in lower compressive strength.
 Generally, high strength concrete or rich concrete is adversely
affected by the use of large size aggregate. But in lean mixes or
weaker concrete the influence of size of the aggregate gets reduced.
 It is interesting to note that in lean mixes larger aggregate gives
highest strength while in rich mixes it is the smaller aggregate
which yields higher strength.
 Why testing is needed?

 To ensure the QUALITY of the material

 To minimize the maintenance cost
 To reduce problem at later stage
 There are 2 types of concrete test that

• a) Destructive test
• b) Non Destructive test
 DESTRUCTIVE TEST
a)Compression strength concrete - Cube test
b) Tensile strength of concrete
Direct Tension Test
Split-Cylinder Test
Flexural Test
• c) Flexural Strength
Why “standardized” testing
is needed?
• Typical factors influencing the test results
– Specimen geometry
– Specimen preparation methods
– Moisture content
– Temperature
– Loading rate
– Type of test machine
– Loading fixture
1. Compressive strength
tests
• Defined as the ability of concrete to
withstand specific compressive
forces.
– Cube specimen- 150 mm x150 mm x150 mm
– Cylinder specimen 150 mm diameter and
300 m length.
 Procedure for Compressive strength tests

 Concrete is poured in the mould and tempered properly so as not to have any voids.
 After 24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for
curing.
 The top surface of these specimen should be made even and smooth.
 These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days curing or
28 days curing.
 Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2 per minute till the
Specimens fails. Load at the failure divided by area of specimen gives the
compressive strength of concrete.
 Procedure for Concrete Cube Test
 Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and
wipe out excess water from the surface.
 Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m
 Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine
 Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load
shall be applied to the opposite sides of the cube cast.
 Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.
 Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top
surface of the specimen.
 Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate
of 140 kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails
 Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type
of failure.
• Compressive strength = LOAD / AREA
Factors affecting the measured compressive
strength
• Stress distribution in specimens
• Size and shape of specimen
• Moisture content
• Temperature at testing
• Test apparatus, rate and type of loading
Crack patterns in cube and cylinder
specimens
• The extent of cracking throughout the specimen is
denser in the cubes than in the cylinders
• Stress concentration near the corners and the
“hour-glass” failure mode in cubes
• Diagonal fracture plane in cylinders

del Viso et al. (2008)

 Preparation of the
contact surface
• Cubes – no need
• Cylinders
– Bonded (sulphur capping)
– Unbonded caps (neoprene pads)

PCA
Specimen should be kept at the center
of the platen
– to avoid eccentric loading

Splitting tensile
strength test
Tensile strength is one of the basic and important
properties of concrete.
A knowledge of its value is required for the design of
concrete structural elements.
 Its value is also used in the design of prestressed
concrete structures, liquid retaining structures, roadways
and runway slabs
Direct tensile strength of concrete is difficult to
determine; recourse is often taken to the determination
of flexural strength or the splitting tensile strength and
computing the direct tensile strength.
What is split tensile strength test?

 A method of determining the tensile strength of

concrete using a cylinder which splits across the
vertical diameter.
 It is an indirect method of testing tensile strength of
concrete.
Why we are going for split tensile test?

 In direct tensile strength test it is impossible to apply true axial

load.
There will be always some eccentricity present.
 Another problem is that stresses induced due to grips. Due to grips
there is a tendency for specimen to break at its ends.
Tamping Rod 
Used for manual compaction of concrete specimen
It shall be a round, straight steel rod with at least the tamping end
rounded to a hemispherical tip of the same diameter as the rod.
Tamping rod diameter is 16 mm  and its length is 600 mm.

Concrete pouring and compaction 

After the mixture is prepared, it is poured into the oiled mould in layers
approximately 5 cm deep.
Then, each layer is compacted either by hand or by vibration.
For manual compaction, use tamping bar.
Distributed bar stroke uniformly in order to compact it properly.
Minimum tamping bar stroke for each layer is 30.
Penetrate strikes in to the underlying layer
Apply the rode for the entire depth of bottom layer
complete top layer compaction
Lastly, the surface of the concrete should be finished level with the top of the
mould using a trowel and covered with a glass or metal plate to prevent evaporation.
Curing of Specimen
Casted specimen should be stored in a place at a temperature of
27° +/- 2°C for 24 +/-  0.5 hrs from the time addition of water to the
dry ingredients.
After that, the specimen should be marked and removed from the
mould and immediately submerged in clean fresh water or saturated
lime solution and kept there until taken out just prior to the test.
The water or solution in witch the specimens are kept should be
renewed every seven days and should be maintained at a
temperature of 27° +/- 2°c.
For design purpose, the specimen cured for 28 days.
At last, for each reading, three specimen shall be casted and tested.
Then, the average tensile strength will be taken.
Procedure of Splitting Tensile Test
Initially, take the wet specimen from water after 7, 28 of curing; or
any desired age at which tensile strength to be estimated.
Then, wipe out water from the surface of specimen
After that, draw diametrical lines on the two ends of the specimen to
ensure that they are on the same axial place.
Next, record the weight and dimension of the specimen.
Set the compression testing machine for the required range.
Place plywood strip on the lower plate and place the specimen.
Align the specimen so that the lines marked on the ends are vertical
and centered over the bottom plate.
Place the other plywood strip above the specimen.
Bring down the upper plate so that it just touch the plywood strip.
Apply the load continuously without shock at a rate
within the range 0.7 to 1.4 MPa/min (1.2 to 2.4 MPa/min
based on IS 5816 1999)
Finally, note down the breaking load(P)
Calculations
Calculate the splitting tensile strength of the specimen as follows:

T = 2P/πLd
Where:
T = splitting tensile strength, MPa
P: maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine,N
D: Diameter of the specimen, mm
L: length of the specimen,mm
 Splitting tensile
strength test
• Tensile strength ≈10% of compressive strength

http://web.mac.com/gwscherer1/SchererGroup/Tensile_test.html
•Flexural strength test
(IS:516-1959)
• EQUIPMENT & APPARATUS

• Beam mould of size 15 x 15x 70 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 38

mm) or of size 10 x 10 x 50 cm (when size of aggregate is less than 19 mm)

• Tamping bar (40 cm long, weighing 2 kg and tamping section having size of

25 mm x 25 mm)

• Flexural  test machine

• PROCEDURE

 Prepare the test specimen by filling the concrete into the mould in 3
layers of approximately equal thickness.
 Tamp each layer 35 times using the tamping bar as specified above.
 Tamping should be distributed uniformly over the entire crossection
of the beam mould and throughout the depth of each layer.
 Clean the bearing surfaces of the supporting and loading rollers , and
remove any loose sand or other material from the surfaces of the
specimen where they are to make contact with the rollers.
 Circular rollers manufactured out of steel having cross section
with diameter 38 mm will be used for providing support and
loading points to the specimens.
 The length of the rollers shall be at least 10 mm more than the width
of the test specimen.
 The distance between the outer rollers (i.e. span) shall be 3d and
the distance between the inner rollers shall be d.
 The inner rollers shall be equally spaced between the outer rollers,
such that the entire system is systematic.
 The specimen stored in water shall be tested immediately on
removal from water; whilst they are still wet.
 The test specimen shall be placed in the machine correctly centered
with the longitudinal axis of the specimen at right angles to the rollers.
 For moulded specimens, the mould filling direction shall be normal to
the direction of loading.
 The load shall be applied at a rate of loading of 400 kg/min for the
15.0 cm specimens and at a rate of 180 kg/min for the 10.0 cm
specimens.
• The Flexural Strength or modulus of rupture (fb) is given by

• fb = pl/bd2  (when a > 20.0cm for 15.0cm specimen or >

13.0cm for 10cm specimen)
• or
• fb = 3pa/bd2  (when a < 20.0cm but > 17.0 for 15.0cm
specimen or < 13.3 cm but > 11.0cm for 10.0cm specimen.)
• Where,
• a = the distance between the line of fracture and the nearer support, measured on the
center line of the tensile side of the specimen
• b = width of specimen (cm)
• d = failure point depth (cm)
• l = supported length (cm)
• p = max. Load (kg)
 • As per KTU SYLABUS ENDS

• FOR FURTHER READING GO THROGTH

REMAINING SLIDES
 Rebound
hammer test
• The test hammer will hit the
concrete at a defined energy.
• The hammer measures the
rebound of a spring loaded
mass impacting against
the surface of the sample.
• Its rebound is dependent on
the hardness of the concrete
and is measured by the test
equipment
• The rebound reading is
correlated to the compressive
strength
 Ultrasonic Pulse
Velocity test
• The time of travel of an
ultrasonic pulse passing through
the concrete is measured
• Influencing factors
– Contact surface smoothness
– Length of the wave path
– Temperature and moisture content
– Presence of reinforcing steel
across the wave path
Shrinkage/expansio
n tests
• Length comparator Steel inserts (or balls)

– Invar rod (a nickel-steel alloy)

– Very low coefficient of thermal
expansion 1.2 x10-6 /oC compared to
steel (12x10-6 /oC)

NOTE TO SAME SCALE

 Pull-off
test

www.proceq.com; http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jba/journal/v3/n2/fig_tab/2950071f8.html#figure-title
 ASTM C1202 - Rapid Chloride
Penetration Test

Charge passed Chloride ion

coulombs
permeability
>4000 High
2000 to 4000 Moderate
1000 to 2000 Low
100 to 1000 Very low
<100 Negligible

www.germann.org
 Water
Sorptivity Test

www.proceq.com; http://www.palgrave-journals.com/jba/journal/v3/n2/fig_tab/2950071f8.html#figure-title
Carbonation
Test
Surface concrete

CO2

Inner concrete

(Phenolphthalein)

(Proprietary solution)

www.germann.org
 ASTM C876 Standard Test Method
for Half-Cell Potentials of Uncoated
• If E < -0.35 V, 90% chance of corrosion
Reinforcement in Concrete
• If E > -0.25 V, 90% chance no corrosion
• If -0.35 V < E < -0.25 V, then ?
 Field tests for alkali-silica
reaction

Source: http://www.tfhrc.gov/pavement/pccp/petro/chaptr10.htm
Referen
ces
• Mindess, Young, and Darwin, “Concrete”, 2 nd

Edition, Prentice Hall

• J.R. del Viso, J.R. Carmona, and G. Ruiz,

“Shape and size effects on the compressive
strength of high-strength concrete”, Cement
and Concrete Research 38 (2008) 386–395
• CHEN Zheng, WU Shaopeng, “Effects of
Loading Rate on Flexural-tension Properties
and Uniaxial Compressive Strength of Micro-
surfacing Mixture”, Vol.25, No.4, Journal of
Wuhan University of Technology--Materials