Unit 3

Models of Communication
• In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have
developed several models. A model is a graphical tentative description of
communication process. The three most well-known models for
communication are :
• Linear,
• Interactional
• Transactional.
• Each model sheds light on the development of communication but
emphasizes different parts of the communication process.
• The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex
interactions.
• They are useful because they simplify the basic structure of
communication and can help us to understand that structure not just
verbally, but also visually.
• They identify the various elements of communication and serve as a
kind of map to show how different parts of the communication
process are interrelated.
Communication Models
• Aristotle Model
• Lasswell Model
• Shannon & Weaver Model
• SMCR Model
• New Comb Model
• Wilbur Schramm Model
• Osgood Model
• Helical Model
• Gate Keeping Model
• Gerbner's Model
 Aristotle’s Model
• He proposed model before 300 B.C. He stressed on the importance of
audience role in communication chain in his communication model. This
model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal
communication. He is considered the first scholar to examine the
communication process
Advantages
• One of the earliest model that simplified process of communication that
inspired a lot of communication scientist leading to newer models
• Communication process is broken down, so it is easier for the speaker to
understand the process.
Disadvantages of Aristotle’s Model of Communication
• There is no concept of feedback, it is one way from speaker to audience.
• There is no concept of communication failure like noise and barriers.
• This model can only be used in public speaking.
Harold Lasswell
• Given by Harold Lasswell a political scientist in 1948.
• Who – Sender
• Says What – Message
• In What Manner - Channel
• To Whom – Receiver
• With What Effect - Feedback
Harold Lasswell
Characteristics
• It is based on effect of the sender’s message on receiver.
• It is very linear in nature (researchers say communication is always in
circular motion because of feedback element)
• It presents communication as more of persuasive process rather than
an informative. Focused on mass communication
• It sees communication as the transmission of messages: it raises the
issue of ‘effect’ rather than meaning.
• Changing one of these elements will change the effect: we change the
sender, we change the message, we change the channel: each one of
these changes should produce the appropriate change in the effect.
Harold Lasswell
Advantage
• It is Easy and Simple
• It suits for almost all types of communication
• The concept of effect
Disadvantage
• Feedback not mentioned
• Noise not mentioned
• Linear Model
Shannon & Weaver Model
• Claude Shannon was an American mathematician, Electronic engineer
and Warren Weaver was an American scientist gave this model in
1948
• Designed to develop the effective communication between sender
and receiver
• Found factors called “Noise”, which affect the communication process
• The model deals with various concepts like Information source,
transmitter, Noise, channel, message, receiver, information
destination, encode and decode.
Shannon & Weaver Model
 Shannon & Weaver Model
Characteristics
• One of the simplest model and its general applied in various
communication theories
• It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or
mass audience
• The model based on “Sender and Receiver”. Sender plays the primary
role and receiver plays the secondary or passive role
• Concept of Noise that helps to solve the various problems in
communication
Advantages
• Introduced concept of noise that helps in making the communication
effective by removing the noise or problem causing noise.
• This model takes communication as a two-way process. It makes the model
applicable in general communication.
Disadvantages
• It’s more effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass
audience
• Receiver plays the passive part in the communication process as sender
plays the primary role that sends messages.
• Feedback is taken as less important in comparison to the messages sent by
the sender.
• The model is taken by some critics as a “misleading misrepresentation of
the nature of human communication” as human communication is not
mathematical in nature.
SMCR Model
• In 1960 David K. Berlo expanded linear model by Shannon and
Weaver and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR)
model of communication
• The SMCR model is a visual representation of the options a person
wishing to convey information can use and to describe the exchange
of information as the message passes from the sender to the channel
to the receiver.
• Many communication models can be traced back to this mother of all
communication models.
• The advantage of the model is that is makes clear that message and
medium are aligned with the recipient.
SMCR Model
• To begin, a sender must choose proper intention of the message such
as to persuade, inform or educate the receiver.
• The content of the message is developed which can contain
terminology, a general theme, connotations, or a combination of all
three.
• The sender then uses a channel that will best convey the intended
message.
• The receiver interprets the message through senses and other facts of
the receiver such as age and educational background.
SMCR Model
SMCR Model
5 tests exist to make sure the proper route is being used in the SMCR
model. If all the questions can be answered with "yes", then the
message should be conveyed successfully. The direction arrows (<--, -->,
<-->) indicate which way the question should answer.
• S-->M test (Are the needs of the sender compatible with the attributes of the
intended message?)
• M<-->C test (Are the messages sent compatible with the channel used?)
• S<-->C test (Are the sender's needs compatible with the channels used?)
• M<-->R test (Are the messages compatible with the receiver's needs?)
• C<-->R test (Are the channels utilized compatible with the receiver's needs?)
Advantages
• The model is straightforward as compared to modern communication models. All the
primary factors which are a part of any communication process are taken into
consideration along with the factors which affect them.
• This model is still being used in some cases of purer forms of communication, like
person-to-person communication.
• This model forms a basis for higher communication models.
Disadvantages
• The primary source of interruption for the failure of any message is noise, and this
model does not consider noise or any other limitations in the process of
communication.
• Unlike a two-way model of communication, there is a complete absence of feedback.
Newcomb Model
• The Newcomb’s model of communication was introduced by
Theodore M Newcomb of the University of Michigan in 1953.
• The main purpose of this model is to introduce the role of
communication in a social relationship (society) and to maintain social
equilibrium within the social system.
• Does not include the message as a separate entity in his diagram,
implying it only by use of directional arrows.
• Concentrates on the social purpose of communication, showing all
communication as a means of sustaining relationships between
people.
• Also called as an “ABX” model of communication.
Newcomb Model
Newcomb Model
• A – Sender
• B – Receiver
• X – Matter of Concern
• The relationship between A and B is like student and teacher,
government and public or newspaper and readers. Sender and
Receiver may work in a same flow but the same time some factor like
“X” may affect their flow of relationship.  “X” it may be third persons,
issue, topic or policy and is part of their social environment. ABX is a
system, which means that its internal relations are interdependent: if
A changes, B and X will change as well or if A changes his relationship
to X;B will have to change either his relationship with X or with A.
Newcomb Model
• The A-B-X system will be in equilibrium only if A and B have similar
attitude to X. The more important a place X has in A's and B's social
environment, the more urgent will be their drive to share an
orientation towards it. Take the example of War time. During such a
time, A, the government, and B, the public, need to communicate to
establish their co-orientation to the War X because it concerns both A
and B. Both A's and B's dependence on media is increased. This is
because the War X is not only of crucial importance but also because
the situation is constantly changing. So, government and people (A
and B) need to be in constant communication via mass media.
Newcomb Model
• Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from 6
hours to 8 hours.
• A – Teachers     B – Students    X – Policy or issue
If both students and teachers are satisfied with this policy, then the
communication maintains its equilibrium status between them.
Otherwise, the flow of communication between “A” and “B” becomes
trouble in the social system. If “A” or “B” is not ready to accept the
policy, then it will directly affect the social system and can’t maintain
the equilibrium status. So, Teachers”A” can convince students “B” as
much as possible. Otherwise, they have to make some adjustments in
the Policy “X” and convince them towards the policy.
Wilbur Schramm Model
• Postulated by Wilbur Schramm in 1954
• Suggested that communication is a two-way process where both
sender and receiver take turns to send and receive a message.
• The message is only sent after encoding so the sender is also called
Encoder and the encoded message is decoded on receipt by the
receiver, making him the Decoder.
• Introduced the concept of “commonness” between the source and
the receiver.
Wilbur Schramm Model
• In his second model, he introduced the concept of field experience,
which helps in determining whether a message would be received at
its destination in the manner intended by the source.
• First to break from the linear theories of communication. 
Wilbur Schramm Model
• Based on the convergence or network approach
• Introduced the concept of feedback which helps the sender to modify
the information form what he observes or hears from the receiver or
the audience.
• The communication process now takes a circular form as both parties
take on the roles of sender and recipient.
• Fields of experience can be defined as, “life experiences, attitudes,
values, and beliefs that each communicator brings to an interaction
and that shape how messages are sent and received”
Wilbur Schramm Model
Advantages
• Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their
opinion. 
• As it is dynamic and ever-changing model, it is helpful in general
practice.
• Sender and receiver interchanges and both are equally active.
• Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the
receiver as intended or not.
• Concept of interpretation makes the communication effective.
• Field of experience (psychological effect) helps to understand the
communication process in many other ways than the traditional ones.
Wilbur Schramm Model
• Concept of context makes the environmental factor be included in
interpretation of message and brings change in the message value.
Disadvantages
• This model can not deal with multiple levels of communication and
complex communication processes.
• There can only be two sources communicating, many sourceswould
complicate the process and the model can not be implemented.
• Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than
intended.
Wilbur Schramm – C E Osgood Model
Wilbur Schramm – C E Osgood Model
Advantage
• Dynamic model- Shows how a situation can change
• There is no separate sender and receiver, sender and receiver is the
same person
• Assume communication to be circular in nature
• Feedback – central feature.
Disadvantage
• This model does not talk about semantic noise and it assume the
moment of encoding and decoding.
Helical Model
• Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in
1967.
• A helix is a three-dimensional spring like curve in the shape of a
cylinder or a cone.
• Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since
birth to existence or existing moment.
• Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication.
• The model is linear as well as circular combined and disagrees the
concept of linearity and circularity individually.
Helical Model
Helical Model
• Frank Dance included the concept of time in his theory.
• Continuousness of the communication process and relational
interactions are very important.
• Something happens over the other will always be based on the first
event according to him.
• According to this theory a communication process is the product of
what we learnt.
• Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is
always growing and accumulative.
Helical Model
• According to the Helical model as the process of communication
moves forward it also comes back and is largely dependant on the
past behaviour of the individual. The model believes that
communication process is just like a helix which moves forward as
well as comes backward and is dependent on the behaviour patterns
of the past definitely with some modifications and changes.  The
Helical model of communication understands communication in a
broader perspective and considers almost all the activities of an
individual from day one to till date. It cumulates all the activities
occurring in the complete span of an individual that affects the
process of communication, which in turn goes forward and also
depends on the past activities.
Helical Model
Advantages of Helical Model of Communication
• The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and
makes communication process to be two way.
• The model takes the communication process speculative and
intellectual.
Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication
• The model is taken as more, simple than it should be.
• Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
• It is not testable because it is abstract.
• It is not represented in a systematic and orderly way.
Helical Model
• Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
• Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be
breaks in situations as well as events can be meaningless, forced or
unproductive.
• The purpose of communication is not always growth.
 Westley and MacLean’s Model
• In 1957 Westley and MacLean’s model of communication was proposed by
Bruce Westley and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr .
• This model can be seen two contexts, interpersonal and mass communication.
And the point of difference between interpersonal and mass communication is
the feedback. In interpersonal, the feedback is direct and fast. In the mass, the
feedback is indirect and slow.
• Westely and Maclean realized that communication does not begin when one
person starts to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his/her
physical surroundings. This model considers a strong relation between responds
from surroundings and the process of communication. Communication begins
only when a person receives message from surroundings. Each receiver
responds to the message they received based on their object of orientation.
X1, X2, X3 and X4….—are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader or Audience (B) and
Gate Keeper (c)
 Westley and MacLean’s Model
• A Daily News Papers will receive many Press releases from Many Public
Relations Agencies on behalf of their clients. In this case, News paper will
publish the selected Press release due to the space constraints. Then, Readers
can directly respond to the client or they can respond to the News daily which
published in the Newspaper. If Readers responded to daily News paper, it will
communicate the feedback to concern PR Agency.
• X1, X2 and X3—are Press Release, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader (B) and
Daily News Paper (Gate Keeper) (c)
1.    Feedback Loop between Reader (B) and News Paper (C) – fBC
2.    Feedback Loop between News Paper(C ) and Client (A)- fCA
3.    Feedback loop between Reader (B) and Client (A)- fBA.
Advantages
• The necessity and concept of feedback is reflected in the model
• The message comes from the environment, not necessarily a person. This
guarantees multiple senses are involved in the process
• Social, cultural, and other factors also play a role as part of the objects of
orientation
• The model can be applied to interpersonal communication, but also mass
communication.
Disadvantages
• The model consists of many components and variables, which make it
appear complex
• The model does not address multiple or complex messages
• Information may be changed while it is being sent from the source to the
receiver (noise), which the model does not address.
Riley & Riley Model
• John W. and Matilda White Riley developed the communication
model called Riley and Riley model in 1959.
• The idea of their work revolves around the Aristotle and Lasswell
model of communication.
• Rileys developed this form to demonstrate the sociological
implications in communication. 
• The model plainly illustrates that communication is a two-way
procedure.
 Riley & Riley Model

•Larger Social Structure 1 contains Communicator, Primary Group a1 and a2. Communicator (c) is representing
the larger social group 1.
•Larger Social Structure 2 contains Receiver, Primary Group b1 and b2. Receiver (R) is representing the larger
social group 2.
•Larger Social group 1 and larger social group 2 is comes under the Over All Social System.
 Riley & Riley Model
• Primary groups are distinguished by their degree of intimacy say may be friends, relatives.
There is also secondary group otherwise known as the reference group (though not
mentioned in the figure) who doesn’t share a very intimate relationship with C or R but do
influence in the communication process. e.g.: any organization C or R belong to (fan club).
• The model indicates that the Communicator (C) sends a message with agreement to the
expectations of the groups and other people in the larger social system. The
communicator is a part of a larger social structure and is influenced by the primary group.
• The Receiver is also works as like as Communicator which is also influenced by the other
groups in the larger social system. The receiver (R) receives the feedback based on the
communicator’s message from its primary social groups. Then send that feedback to
communicator (C) to rectify any issues or problems.
• The important point is the both Communicator and Receiver are a part of an over-all
social system.
Advantages
• The model clearly illustrates that communication is a two-way
proposition.
• Communicator and recipient are interdependent and interrelated by
feedback mechanisms.
• Communicator and receiver are part of a larger social context (be it
family, community, or workplace); and are not acting in isolation.