Unit 4

Research Design, Sampling and Sample Size Determination

4.1. The Concept of Research Design

4.2. Types of Research Design

4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination

 4.1. The Concept of Research Design
What is Review Design??
 The research design is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data
 It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for
gathering and analyzing the data
 It also includes the time and cost budgets
 It is a clear statement of the problem, procedures ,
techniques for gathering information; the population to be
studied, methods used in processing and analyzing data.
 4.2. Types of Research Design
 The selection of a research design is based on the nature of
the research problem or issue being addressed
 There are different types of research designs
1. Experimental/quasi experimental Research Design
2. Longitudinal design Cross-sectional-
3. Case study design
4. Pluralistic (mixed methods) designs
5. Qualitative-quantitative approaches
 4.2. Types of Research Design
1. Exploratory Research Design
 The purpose of this research is to achieve new insights into a phenomenon
 The purposes of formulating a problem for more accurate investigating for
developing a hypothesis
 Used when there are few or no earlier research/studies to which references can be
made for information
 Exploratory studies are usually more appropriate in case of problem about which
little research knowledge is available
 To investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility
study / pilot study).
 In practice most studies are a combination of different categories.

1. Cross-sectional-longitudinal design
2. Case study design
3. Pluralistic (mixed methods) designs
 4.2. Types of Research Design
2. Descriptive Research Design
 It is also known as statistical research, this describes phenomena as they exist
 To identify and obtain information on characteristic of a particular issue like
community/ group /people
 Describes social events, social structure, social situations...
 Descriptive research answers the questions, what, who, where, how and when
 It is used to study the current situation
 Used more common in the social sciences, as in socioeconomic survey and
job and activity analysis

2. Case study design

3. Pluralistic (mixed methods) designs
 4.2. Types of Research Design
3. Explanatory Research Design
 The research is mainly concerned with causes or „why‟
factor about some phenomenon
 Attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon
 Used to test the causal r/s under controlled situation
 An experiment is an observation under controlled
conditions
 Controlling means the phenomenon or the condition should
not be allowed to change while the experimentation
 To assess the effect of one particular variable on a
phenomenon by keeping other variables constant/control
 4.2. Types of Research Design
4. Cross-sectional-Longitudinal Design
 A research carried on over several time periods
 Longitudinal study as one in which each individual is
observed on more than one occasion
 In a cross-sectional study, the investigator measures the
outcome and the exposures in the study participants at the
same time
– The study takes place at a single point in time.
– It does not involve manipulating variables.
– It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at
once (age, income, gender, etc.)
– It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given
population.
 4.2. Types of Research Design
4. Cross-sectional-Longitudinal Design
 A research carried on over several time periods
 Longitudinal study as one in which each individual is
observed on more than one occasion
 In a cross-sectional study, the investigator measures the
outcome and the exposures in the study participants at the
same time
– The study takes place at a single point in time.
– It does not involve manipulating variables.
– It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at
once (age, income, gender, etc.)
– It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given
population.
 4.2. Types of Research Design
5. Case Study
 Case study is an empirical research method used to
investigate a contemporary phenomenon, focusing on the
dynamics of the case, within its real life context
 The aim of research is to find answers to „why‟ and
„how‟ types of questions
 It is conducted with various goals, such as to describe a
phenomenon, test theory or generate a theory
 Case study used as a theory building method
 while conducting case studies which are critical, in depth
 However, lack rigor, take long time, biased,……etc
 4.2. Types of Research Design
5. Correlational Research Design
 A correlational study is a type of research design where
a researcher seeks to understand what kind of relationships
naturally occurring variables have with one another.
 In simple terms, correlational research seeks to figure
out if two or more variables are related and, if so, in what
way
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Population, Sample & sampling
 Population
– the entire group of people, events, or things of interest
that the researcher wishes to investigate
 Sample
– is a small part of the population from whom data is
collected
• Sampling unit
– the element or set of elements[e.g., households,
individuals, organizations] that is available for selection
in some stage of the sampling process
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Population, Sample & sampling
• Sampling is a process or technique of selecting a suitable
sample for the purpose of determining characteristics of
the whole population
• To carry out a study bear in mind:
– what size the sample should be, and
– whether the size is statistically justified and lastly
– what method of sampling is to be used
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Need of Sampling
 Much of our day to day information is based on samples,
because measuring everything is often:
– too slow
– too expensive and
– impractical
 Use census [i.e., information on the whole population]
study:
– when the population is small (under 50).
– The variability is high (when the elements are quite
different from each other)
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Sample Size Determination
 The criteria to be specified to determine sample size:
• level of precision or sampling error
• level of confidence or risk, and
• degree of variability in the attributes being measured.
• The cost and time constraints
a) The Level of Precision: is the range in which the true
value of the population is estimated to be ( ±5 percent).
 if the sample estimate is Birr 4,000 and the precision
level desired is ± 4%, then the true population value
will be no less than Birr 3,840 &no more than 4,160).
 This is the range (Birr 3,840 to Birr 4,160) true answer
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Sample Size Determination
 The Confidence Level: The confidence or risk level is based
on ideas encompassed under the Central Limit Theorem
 if a 95% confidence level is selected, 95 out of 100 samples
will have the true population value within the range of
precision specified
 Risk is reduced for higher (99%) confidence levels and
increased for lower (90%) confidence levels
 Degree of Variability: The distribution of attributes in the population,
 the more heterogeneous a population, the larger the sample size
required to obtain a given level of precision ,
 The less variable (more homogeneous) a population, the smaller the
sample size.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Strategies for determining sample size
 Although there are no fixed rules in determining the size of a
sample needed, the following strategies are applicable;
using a census for small populations,
imitating a sample size of similar studies,
using published tables, and
applying formulas to calculate a sample size
 Using A Census For Small Populations
• A census is attractive for small populations ( 50 or less)
• A census eliminates sampling error
• It provides data on all the individuals in the population
• The entire population sampled in small populations
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Using Published Tables
 Table 1 and Table 2 present sample sizes that would be
necessary for a given combinations of precision,
confidence levels, and variability
 Please note two things.
– First, sample sizes reflect the number of obtained
responses, not the number of surveys mailed or
interviews planned (this number is often increased to
compensate for non response)
– Second, the sample sizes in Table 2 presume that the
attributes being measured are distributed normally or
nearly so.
Research Methods, Belay
19
Kinati, PhD
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
A Simplified Formula For Proportions
 Yamane (1967:886) provides a simplified formula to
calculate sample sizes.
 Where n is the sample size, N is the population size, and e
is the level of precision.
 e.g., with population size of 2000, A 95%
confidence level, what is sample size?

 Whenever possible, you should select a larger sample size

to compensate for the likelihood of a lower than 100%
response rate
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of sampling
• Two basic sampling techniques: probability and non-
probability sampling.
• In a probability sampling, every element of the
population has an equal chance of being selected
[probability of selection is obtained by dividing sample
size to population size].
• To draw a sample, the researcher first compiles a
sampling frame [i.e., list of elements from which the
sample may be drawn] in which each element is assigned
a unique identification number.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of sampling
• The sampling unit is a single element or group of elements
subject to selection in the sample
• The term primary sampling units (PSUs) designates units
selected in the first stage of sampling.
• If successive stages of sampling, sampling units are called
secondary sampling units, or tertiary sampling units
• In probability sampling, to estimate statistically the
characteristics of the population from sample.
• Probability sampling is associated with survey and
experiment research.
• Probability sampling: Simple, Systematic, Stratified, Cluster &
Multi stage sampling
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of sampling
• In non-probability sampling, probability of each case
being selected from the total population is not known,
– selection of sampling units rely on personal judgment
– The researcher does not have sufficient information
about population to undertake probability sampling.
– it is impossible to answer research questions that
require you to make statistical inferences about the
characteristics of the population.
– Convenience, Quota, Purposive & Snowball
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple/unrestricted Random:
– Each unit of the population has a known, equal, nonzero
probability of being included in the sample.
– It requires a complete list of the study population.
– researcher assigns each member of sampling frame a number
– selects sample units by random method (a lottery).
• The lottery system:
– a set of tickets or cards equal to the number of the population is to
be prepared---placing the names in a hat and drawing the sample.
– Will be thoroughly mixed up and then n tickets will be drawn one
by one.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
 Systematic Random sampling
– Requires the complete list of population
 Procedures:
– Population has N units. Plan to sample n units and then
– The sampling interval/skip interval= N/n------K
– Line-up all N units
– Randomly select a number between 1 and K ( call it j)
– Select the jth unit and every kth unit after that (the next
member of the sample is chosen by adding ‘k’ to the
random starting point).
 Example

• Systematic sampling is suitable for geographically dispersed

cases. Example: Clients attending a clinic or Banks.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Procedure
– Divide or classify the population into strata [groups] on the basis
of some common characteristics [sex, race etc.].
– Classification should be done so that every member of the
population is found in one and only one stratum [i.e., mutually
exclusive groups].
– Separate samples are then drawn from each stratum
(proportionately/disproportionally).
– Disproportionality is used when the strata is exhibiting more
variability.
– Stratified sampling ensures homogeneity within each stratum, but
heterogeneity between strata
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Example: To study the extent and intensity of training
needed by employees in certain organization.
– The strata could be: Professional staff, technical staff and
clerical staff.
– If p represents the proportion of population included in
stratum I, and n represents the total sample size; the
number of elements selected from stratum I is n*p
 Problem: The director of recruitment for Federal Revenue
and Customs Authority wants information about the
applicants to the authority over the previous four years.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Population and sampling frame: All applicants to the
Authority for the past four years
• Procedure: construct a proportionate stratified sample,
using the year of applications as the strata. Select a
random sample of applications from the total group for
each year. Assume 15% as sampling fraction for each
Stratum
stratum:
No. of applications Sampling fraction No of sample
Year one 400 15% 60
Year Two 350 15% 53
Year three 275 15% 41
Year four 250 15% 38
Total 1,275 192
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Exercise
• For instance, the study population constitutes 10 top
mangers, 30 middle managers, 50 lower-level mangers,
100 supervisors, 500 clerks, and 20 secretariats.
• If a sample of 142 people is needed for some inquiry,
determine samples to be selected from each stratum by
using proportionate stratified sampling. (p=142/710=
20%.....sampling proportion)
 Stratified sampling-Cont’d
Feedback
Stratum-by job level No. of applications Sampling fraction No of sample

Top mgt 10 20% 2

Middle level mgt 30 20% 6

Lower-level mgt 50 20% 10

Supervisors 100 20% 20

Clerks 500 20% 100

Secretaries 20 20% 4

Total 710 142

 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Types of Probability Sampling
 Cluster sampling
– Cluster sampling involves division of elements of a
population into groups(clusters)
– For cluster sampling, your sampling frame is the
complete list of clusters rather than a complete list of
individual cases within the population.
– You then select a few clusters, normally using simple
random sampling.
– Data are then collected from every case within the
selected clusters or take sample.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Non-probability sampling
 Non-probability sampling designs
– Can work well for exploratory studies
– Useful if it is not important to obtain accurate estimates of
population characteristics.
– The units are selected at the discretion/ preference of researcher.
– Cheaper and easier to carry out than probability designs
 Disadvantages of non-probability sampling:
– Such samples would not be a representative of the population
– The results cannot be generalized.
– One cannot estimate parameters from sample statistics
– Projecting the data beyond the sample is statistically inappropriate.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Non-probability sampling
 Convenience sampling
– also called haphazard or accidental sampling or
volunteer sampling
– Involves collecting information from members of the
population who are conveniently available to provide it.
– Criteria: The availability/ the ease of obtaining/ and
willingness to respond.
 Quota sampling:
– A type of stratified sample in which selection of cases
within strata is entirely non-random.
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Non-probability sampling
 Purposive sampling/judgmental/ deliberate sampling
– The researcher uses his own judgment about which
respondents to choose, and picks only those best meet the
purposes on the study.
– Expert sampling: involves selecting persons with known
experience or expertise in an area.
– Example: A Local government uses purposive samples
when it seeks information from cities with a reputation
for excellent administration (what performance measures
they use, how they monitor citizen satisfaction).
 4.3. Sampling and Sample Size Determination
Non-probability sampling
 Snowball sampling/referral sampling
– Analogy: a snowball, beings small but becomes bigger and bigger
as it rolls downhill.
– Individuals are discovered initially and then this group is used to
locate others (the names & addresses) who possess similar
characteristics and who, in turn, identify others.
– Used when members of a population cannot be located easily by
other methods and where the members of a population know or are
aware of each other.
– Example: we may want to sample very small populations who are
not easily distinguishable from the general population or who do
not want to be identified, for example drug users, homeless,
commercial sex workers