17

Change in Communities
Chapter 17 Change in Communities

CONCEPT 17.2 Succession is the process of change in species

composition over time as a result of abiotic and biotic agents of change.
CONCEPT 17.3 Experimental work on succession shows its mechanisms
to be diverse and context-dependent.
CONCEPT 17.4 Communities can follow different successional paths and
display alternative states.
Concept 17.1
Agents of Change

Succession is change in species

composition in communities over time.
It results from both biotic and abiotic
factors.
Concept 17.1
Agents of Change

Abiotic agents of change fall into two

categories:
• Disturbance: Events that injure or kill
some individuals and create
opportunities for other individuals.
• Stress: Abiotic factors that reduce
growth, reproduction, or survival of
individuals.
CONCEPT 17.2
Succession is the process of change in
species composition over time as a result
of abiotic and biotic agents of change.
Concept 17.2
The Basics of Succession

Theoretically, succession progresses

through various stages that include a
climax stage—a stable end point that
changes little.
But there is some argument about
whether succession can ever lead to a
stable end point.
Figure 17.5 The Trajectory of Succession
Concept 17.2
The Basics of Succession

Two types of succession:

• Primary succession: Colonization of
habitats devoid of life (e.g., volcanic
rock).
• Secondary succession:
Reestablishment of a community in
which some, but not all, organisms
have been destroyed.
Concept 17.2
The Basics of Succession

When you use a gradient such as a sand

dune to a forest to study succession or
change in communities over time.
This technique is called “space for time
substitution.”
Figure 17.8 Three Models of Succession
CONCEPT 17.3
Experimental work on succession shows its
mechanisms to be diverse and context-
dependent.
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

Cooper observed increasing plant

species richness and change in
composition with time and distance from
the melting ice front.
The pioneer stage is dominated by
lichens, mosses, horsetails, willows, and
cottonwoods.
Figure 17.10 Successional Communities at Glacier Bay, Alaska
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

In field experiments, spruce seeds were

added to each successional stage.
Germination, growth, and survival were
monitored over time.
Neighboring plants had both facilitative
and inhibitory effects on the spruce
seedlings, but the direction and strength
of those effects varied with successional
stage.
Figure 17.12 Both Positive and Negative Effects Influence Succession
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

Glacier Bay illustrates all three

mechanisms in Connell and Slatyer’s
models:
Early stages show aspects of facilitation
—plants modify the habitat in positive
ways for other plants and animals.
Later, species such as alders have
negative effects on later successional
species.
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

In the spruce stage, where dominance is

an artifact of slow growth and long life,
succession is driven by life history
characteristics, as in the tolerance
model.
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

Many experimental studies show that

succession is driven by many
mechanisms. No one model fits any one
community.
Facilitative interactions are often
important drivers of early succession,
especially when physical conditions are
stressful.
Concept 17.3
Mechanisms of Succession

As succession progresses, larger, slow-

growing and long-lived species begin to
dominate.
Competition probably plays a more
dominant role later in succession.
In mid- to late-successional stages, an
array of both positive and negative
interactions are operating.
CONCEPT 17.4
Communities can follow different
successional paths and display alternative
states.
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

Sometimes different communities develop

in the same area under similar
environmental conditions—alternative
stable states.
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

A community is thought to be stable

when it returns to its original state after
perturbation.
Stability partly depends on the scale of
observation, both spatial and temporal.
Ecologists have done much research on
alternative stable states.
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

Lewontin and Sutherland thought that

multiple stable states existed and could
be driven by addition or exclusion of
strong interactors.
If the strong interactor was missing, a
community could follow alternative
successional trajectories.
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

The theory of alternative stable states can

be depicted as a topographic surface.
Valleys represent different community
states, a ball represents a community.
The ball can move from one valley to
another, depending on presence or
absence of strongly interacting species.
Figure 17.18 A Model of Alternative Stable States
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

A change in one or more dominant

species might force the ball into a new
valley (stable state).
The ball might not be able to move back
into the first valley.
Hysteresis is an inability to shift back to
the original community type, even when
original conditions are restored.
Concept 17.4
Alternative Stable States

These regime shifts are caused by

removal or addition of strong interactors
that maintain a community type.
It is unclear whether the results can be
reversed.
For example, will reintroduction of sea
otters rejuvenate kelp forests?