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Syllabus
• Production Function: Meaning, production
with one variable input, the law of variable
proportion, the laws of returns to scale.
Economies of Scale.
Production: Meaning
• Any activity which creates value is production.
• In other words, production is transformation of inputs (such
as capital, equipment, labour, and land etc ) into output such
as good or service .
• e.g. – transporting sand, operating a jeweller store, drilling
for oil, recruiting new employees, designing a system to
measure air pollution, producing biscuits, cultivation,
trading and so on.
Production-Function
• In economics, the technical law, relating inputs to outputs, has been given the
name of production- function.
• In simple words, production - function expresses the relationship between the
physical inputs and physical output of a firm for a given state of technology.
• The production-function can be written mathematically as follows:
• qx = f (F1 , F2 , F3 ……….. Fn)
• Here, qx = the quantity of x commodity
• F1 , F2 , F3 ……….. Fn = Different factor-inputs
• This equation tells that the output of x depends on the factors F 1 , F2 , F3
……….. Fn ,etc.
• There is functional relationship between factor-inputs and the amount of goods x.
• For example, the output of cloth depends on cotton, thread, machine, labour,
chemicals, etc.
• Hence the relationship between factor-inputs (e.g. thread, machine, labour,
chemicals, etc.) and the output of cloth can be shown with the help of production-
function.
Production Function
• Production function express the technological relationship
between physical inputs and physical output of a firm under
given technology.
• A production function may be write as follows
Where,
• Q = output (total product)
• Q = f(N, L, K, E,…..)
• N (land), L(labour), K(capital), E(entrepreneurship) , ..
are the inputs.
Production Function
Inputs (Factors) of Production/ Factor
Inputs/Factors/Inputs
• Factors of production are broadly classified as :
• Land:
• Anything which is gift of nature and not the result of human effort,
e.g. soil, water, forests, minerals. Owner of land is called landlord. Reward
of land is called as rent.
• Labour:
• Physical or mental effort of human beings that undertakes the
production process. Labour is supplied by the workers. Labour can be
skilled as well as unskilled, physical or intellectual.
• Reward/price of labour is called as wages/ salary.
Factors Of Production
Inputs (Factors) of Production/ Factor
Inputs/Factors/Inputs
• Capital:
• Wealth which is used for further production as machine/
equipment/intermediary good. It is outcome of human
efforts meaning capital is man-made. Reward of capital is
called as interest,
• Enterprise/Entrepreneurship/organisation:
• The ability and action to take risk of collecting,
coordinating, and utilizing all the factors of production for
the purpose of uncertain economic gains. Owner of
enterprise is entrepreneur. Reward of entrepreneurship is
called as profit.
Concept of Time
• Q is total product
• L is quantity of a factor input
Marginal Product
• Marginal Product (MP) is rate of change in total product
with respect to a factor.
• Concept of Product contd.
• In other words, marginal product is the addition to total product
by utilizing one more one unit of variable input to the production
process, keeping other factor fixed.
Where ,
• dQ is change in total product
• dL is change in quantity of a factor input.
Law of Variable Proportions or
Returns to a Factor
Meaning and Definition
• The law of variable proportions has an important place in
economic theory.
• This law exhibits the short-run production-functions in
which one factor is variable and others are fixed.
• The extra output obtained by applying extra unit of a
variable factor can be greater than, equal to or less than the
output obtained by its previous unit.
• If the number of units of a variable factor is increased, the
way wherein the output changes is the concern of this law.
Law of Variable Proportions or
Returns to a Factor
• Thus it refers to the effect of changing factor-ratio on the
output.
• In short, the law which exhibits the relationship between the
units of a variable factor (keeping all other factors as
constant) and the amount of output in the short-run is known
as returns to a variable factor.
• Thus the law of variable proportions is also named as (or returns
to a factor) returns to a variable factor.
• The law states that with the increase in a variable factor, keeping
other factors constant, total product increases at an increasing rate,
then increases at diminishing rate and finally starts declining.
Reason as to why it is called the Law of Variable Proportions:
• Thus, the main reason for the operation of the different forms
of returns to scale is found in economies and diseconomies.
• — When economies exceed the diseconomies → the stage of
increasing returns operate.
• — When economies equal diseconomies → the stage of
constant returns to scale.
• — when diseconomies exceed the economies → stage of
diminishing returns to scale.
Distinction between Returns to a Variable Factor
(or Law of Variable Proportions) and Returns
to Scale
• The main differences between returns to a variable factor and
returns to scale are as indicated below:
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