Introduction To Statistics

Chapter 1
Introduction to
Statistics
Copyright 2019, Pearson Education, Ltd. 1

• Lecturer –
Introduction to  Muhammad Safwan Ibrahim
the Course • Course Outline
• Changes to Assessments

Changes to Assessments
Assessments %
Quiz 1 10
Test 1 25
Test 2 25
Assignments 10
Project 20
Project 10

Chapter Outline
• 1.1 An Overview of Statistics
• 1.2 Data Classification
• 1.3 Data Collection and Experimental Design

Section 1.1
An Overview of Statistics

Section 1.1 Objectives
• A definition of statistics
• How to distinguish between a population and a
sample and between a parameter and a statistic
• How to distinguish between descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics

What is Data?
Data
Consist of information coming from observations,
counts, measurements, or responses.
• According to a survey, more than 7 in 10 Americans
say a nursing career is a prestigious occupation.
(Source: The Harris Poll)
• “Social media consumes kids today as well, as more
score their first social media accounts at an average
age of 11.4 years old.” (Source: Influence Central’s
2016 Digital Trends Study)
What is Statistics?
Statistics
The science of collecting,
organizing, analyzing, and
interpreting data in order to
make decisions.

Data Sets
Population
The collection of all outcomes,
responses, measurements, or
counts that are of interest.
Sample
A subset, or part, of the population.

Example: Identifying Data
Sets
In a recent survey, 834 employees in the United States
were asked if they thought there jobs were highly
stressful. Of the 834 respondents, 517 said yes. Identify
the population and the sample. Describe the sample data
set. (Source: CareerCast Job Stress Report)

Solution: Identifying Data
Sets
• The population consists of the responses of all
employees in the U.S.
• The sample consists of the responses of the 834
employees in the survey.
• The sample is a subset of
the responses of all
employees in the U.S.
• The data set consists of
517 yes’s and 317 no’s.

Parameter and Statistic
Parameter
A numerical description of a population
characteristic.
Average age of all people in the
United States
Statistic
A numerical description of a sample
characteristic.
Average age of people from a sample
of three states
Example: Distinguish Parameter and Statistic
Decide whether each number describes a population
parameter or a sample statistic.
1. A survey of several hundred collegiate student-
athletes in the United States found that, during the
season of their sport, the average time spent on
athletics by student-athletes is 50 hours per week.
(Source: Penn Schoen Berland)
Solution:
1. Because the average of 50 hours per week is
based on a subset of the population, it is a
sample statistic.
Decide whether the numerical value describes a
population parameter or a sample statistic.
2. The freshman class at a university has an average

SAT math score of 514.
Solution:
2. Because the average SAT math score of 514 is
based on the entire freshman class, it is a
population parameter.

Decide whether the numerical value describes a
population parameter or a sample statistic.
3. In a random check of several hundred retail stores,

the Food and Drug Administration found that 34%
of the stores were not storing fish at the proper
temperature.
Solution:
3. Because 34% is based on a subset of the population,
it is a sample statistic.

Branches of Statistics
Descriptive Inferential Statistics
Statistics Involves Involves using sample
organizing, data to draw
summarizing, and conclusions about a
displaying data. population.
e.g. Tables, charts,

averages

Example: Descriptive and
Inferential Statistics
For each study, identify the population and the sample.
Then determine which part of the study represents the
descriptive branch of statistics. What conclusions might
be drawn from the study using inferential statistics?
1. A study of 2560 U.S. adults
found that of adults not using
the Internet, 23% are from
households earning less than
$30,000 annually, as shown in the
figure. (Source: Pew Research
Center)
Solution: Descriptive and
Solution:
1. The population consists of the responses of all U.S.
adults, and the sample consists of the responses of
the 2560 U.S. adults in the study. The descriptive
branch of statistics involves the statement “23% [of
U.S. adults not using the Internet]
are from households earning less
than $30,000 annually.” A possible
inference drawn from the study
is that lower-income households
cannot afford access to the Internet.
Example: Descriptive and
For each study, identify the population and the sample.
Then determine which part of the study represents the
descriptive branch of statistics. What conclusions might
be drawn from the study using inferential statistics?
2. A study of 300 Wall Street analysts found that the
percentage who incorrectly forecasted high-tech
earnings in a recent year was 44%. (Adapted from
Bloomberg News)

Solution: Descriptive and
Solution:
2. The population consists of the high-tech earnings
forecasts of all Wall Street analysts, and the sample
consists of the forecasts of the 300 Wall Street
analysts in the study. The part of this study that
represents the descriptive branch of statistics
involves the statement “the percentage [of Wall
Street analysts] who incorrectly forecasted high-tech
earnings in a recent year was 44%.” A possible
inference drawn from the study is that the stock
market is difficult to forecast, even for professionals.
Section 1.2
Data Classification

• How to distinguish between qualitative data and
quantitative data
• How to classify data with respect to the four levels of
measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio

Types of Data
Qualitative Data
Consists of attributes, labels, or nonnumerical entries.
Major Place of birth Eye color

Types of Data
Quantitative data
Numerical measurements or counts.
Age Weight of a letter Temperature

Example: Classifying Data by
Type
The table shows sports-related head injuries treated in
U.S. emergency rooms during a recent five-year span
for several sports. Which data
are qualitative data and which
are quantitative data?
(Source: BMC Emergency
Medicine)

Solution: Classifying Data by Type
Qualitative Data (Types Quantitative Data

of sports are (Head injuries treated
nonnumerical entries.) are numerical entries.)

Levels of Measurement
Nominal level of measurement
• Qualitative data only
• Categorized using names, labels, or qualities
• No mathematical computations can be made
Ordinal level of measurement

• Qualitative or quantitative data
• Data can be arranged in order, or ranked
• Differences between data entries is not meaningful

Level
For each data set, determine whether the data are at the
nominal level or at the ordinal level. Explain your
reasoning. (Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics)

Solution: Classifying Data by
Level
Ordinal level (lists the Nominal level (lists movie

rank of five largest job genres). No mathematical
growth occupations. Data computations can be made
can be ordered. Difference and cannot be ranked.
between ranks is not
meaningful.)
Interval level of measurement
• Quantitative data
• Data can ordered
• Differences between data entries is meaningful
• Zero represents a position on a scale (not an inherent
zero – zero does not imply “none”)

Ratio level of measurement
• Similar to interval level
• Zero entry is an inherent zero (implies “none”)
• A ratio of two data values can be formed
• One data value can be expressed as a multiple of
another

Level
Two data sets are shown. Which data set consists of data
at the interval level? Which data set consists of data at
the ratio level?
(Source: Major League Baseball)

Solution: Classifying Data by
Level
Interval level (Quantitative

data. Can find a difference
between two dates, but a
ratio does not make sense.)
Ratio level (Can find
differences and write
ratios.)
Summary of Four Levels of Measurement
Put data Arrange Subtract Determine if one

Level of in data in data data value is a
Measurement categories order values multiple of another
Nominal Yes No No No
Ordinal Yes Yes No No
Interval Yes Yes Yes No
Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes

Summary of Four Levels of
Measurement

Summary of Four Levels of
Measurement

Section 1.3
Data Collection and

Experimental Design
37 of 61
• How to design a statistical study and how to
distinguish between an observational study and an
experiment
• How to collect data by using a survey or a simulation
• How to design an experiment
• How to create a sample using random sampling,
simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, and systematic sampling and how to
identify a biased sample

Designing a Statistical Study
1. Identify the variable(s) 3. Collect the data.

of interest (the focus) 4. Describe the data using
and the population of descriptive statistics
the study. techniques.
2. Develop a detailed plan 5. Interpret the data and
for collecting data. If make decisions about
you use a sample, make the population using
sure the sample is inferential statistics.
representative of the 6. Identify any possible
population. errors.

Data Collection
Observational study
• A researcher observes and measures characteristics of
interest of part of a population.
• Researchers measured the amount of time people

spent doing various activities, such as paid work,
childcare, and socializing. (Source: U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics)

Data Collection
Experiment
• A treatment is applied to part of a population, called
a treatment group, and responses are observed.
• Another part of the population may be used as a
control group, in which no treatment is applied. (The
subjects in both groups are called experimental
units.) In many cases, subjects in the control group
are given a placebo, which is a harmless, fake
treatment that is made to look like the real treatment.

Data Collection
Experiment
• An experiment was performed in which overweight
subjects were given the artificial sweetener sucralose
to drink while a control group drank water. After
performing a glucose test, researchers concluded that
“sucralose affects the glycemic and insulin
responses” in overweight people who do not normally
consume artificial sweeteners.(Source: Diabetes Care)

Example: Observational
Study or an Experiment
Determine whether each study is an observational study
or an experiment.
1. Researchers study the effect of vitamin D3
supplementation among patients with antibody
deficiency or frequent respiratory tract infections. 70
patients receive 4000 IU of vitamin D3 daily for a
year. Another group of 70 patients receive a placebo
daily for one year. (Source: British Medical Journal)
Solution:
The study applies a treatment (vitamin D3) to the
subjects. The study is an experiment.
Example: Observational
Study or an Experiment
Determine whether each study is an observational study
or an experiment.
2. Researchers conduct a study to determine how
confident Americans are in the economy. Researchers
call 3040 U.S. adults and ask them to rate current
U.S. economic conditions and whether the economy
is getting better or worse. (Source: Gallup)
Solution:
The study does not attempt to influence the responses
of the subjects, the study is an observational study.
Data Collection
Simulation
• Uses a mathematical or physical model to reproduce
the conditions of a situation or process.
• Often involves the use of computers.
• Allow you to study situations that are impractical or
even dangerous to create in real life.
• Often save time and money.
• For instance, automobile manufacturers use
simulations with dummies to study the effects of
crashes on humans.

Data Collection
Survey
• An investigation of one or more characteristics of a
population.
• Surveys are carried out on people by asking them
questions.
• Commonly done by interview, Internet, phone, or
mail.
• In designing a survey, it is important to word the
questions so that they do not lead to biased results,
which are not representative of a population.

Data Collection
Survey
• For instance, a survey is conducted on a sample of
female physicians to determine whether the primary
reason for their career choice is financial stability.
• In designing the survey, it would be acceptable to
make a list of reasons and ask each individual in the
sample to select her first choice.

Sampling Techniques
• A census is a count or measure of an entire
population.
• A sampling is a count or measure of part of a
population and is more commonly used in statistical
studies.
• Even with the best methods of sampling, a sampling
error may occur. A sampling error is the difference
between the results of a sample and those of the
population.

Sampling Techniques
Random Sample
Every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected.
Simple Random Sample
Every possible sample of the same size has the same
chance of being selected.
x x x xxxxxx x xxx x x x
x x x x xx xx x x x x xx xxx xx x
x xx xx x
x x x xx x x xx x x x x
x xxx xx x xxxxx x x xx x x xx x x xx xxx
xx x x xxx xx x x x x x x
x x x xx xx

Simple Random Sample
• Random numbers can be generated by a random
number table, a software program or a calculator.
• Assign a number to each member of the population.
• Members of the population that correspond to these
numbers become members of the sample.

Example: Using a Simple
Random Sample
There are 731 students currently enrolled in statistics at
your school. You wish to form a sample of eight
students to answer some survey questions. Select the
students who will belong to the simple random sample.
• Assign numbers 1 to 731 to each student taking

statistics.
• On the table of random numbers, choose a
starting place at random (suppose you start in
the third row, second column.)

Solution: Simple Random Sample
• Read the digits in groups of three

• Ignore numbers greater than 731
The students assigned numbers 719, 662, 650, 4,

53, 589, 403, and 129 would make up the sample.
Other Sampling Techniques
Stratified Sample
• Divide a population into groups (strata) and select a
random sample from each group.
• To collect a stratified sample of the number of people
who live in West Ridge County households, you could
divide the households into socioeconomic levels and
then randomly select households from each level.

Cluster Sample
• Divide the population into groups (clusters) and
select all of the members in one or more, but not
all, of the clusters.
• In the West Ridge County example you could divide
the households into clusters according to zip codes,
then select all the households in one or more, but
not all, zip codes.

Systematic Sample
• Choose a starting value at random. Then choose
every kth member of the population.
• In the West Ridge County example you could assign
a different number to each household, randomly
choose a starting number, then select every 100th
household.

Convenience Sample
• Choose only members of the population that are
easy to get.
• Often leads to biased studies (not recommended).

Example: Identifying Sampling
Techniques
You are doing a study to determine the opinion of
students at your school regarding stem cell research.
Identify the sampling technique used.
1. You divide the student population with respect

to majors and randomly select and question
some students in each major.
Solution:
Stratified sampling (the students are divided into
strata (majors) and a sample is selected from each
major)
Techniques
2. You assign each student a number and generate
random numbers. You then question each student
whose number is randomly selected.
Solution:
Simple random sample (each sample of the same
size has an equal chance of being selected and
each student has an equal chance of being
selected.)

Techniques
3. You select students who are in your biology class.
Solution:
Because the sample is taken from students that are
readily available, this is a convenience sample.
The sample may be biased because biology
students may be more familiar with stem cell
research than other students and may have stronger
opinions.

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Chapter 1

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• 1.2 Data Classification

• 1.3 Data Collection and Experimental Design

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2. The freshman class at a university has an average

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3. In a random check of several hundred retail stores,

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e.g. Tables, charts,

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Major Place of birth Eye color

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Age Weight of a letter Temperature

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Qualitative Data (Types Quantitative Data

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Ordinal level of measurement

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Ordinal level (lists the Nominal level (lists movie

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Interval level (Quantitative

Put data Arrange Subtract Determine if one

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Data Collection and

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1. Identify the variable(s) 3. Collect the data.

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• Researchers measured the amount of time people

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• Assign numbers 1 to 731 to each student taking

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• Read the digits in groups of three

The students assigned numbers 719, 662, 650, 4,

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