contents

• Microscopy-background
• Scattering physics of light and electrons
 Scattering
• Electromagnetic radiation described in terms
of a stream of photons and associated
wavelength
• Basic physics already seen:
– Wave particle duality, de Broglie wavelength
 During scattering
• During scattering, the incident wave may undergo
changes in amplitude and/or phase.
• scattering processes can be divided into two types:
– elastic scattering involves no energy transfer during the
scattering process (hence no wavelength change of the
scattered radiation), although there may be changes in the
direction of the incident wave following scattering
– inelastic scattering involves energy transfer during
scattering (hence a gain or loss in the energy of the
associated particles or quasi-particles) and changes in the
direction of the incident wave.
X-rays and their interaction with matter

• X-rays are produced via the electron

bombardment of a metal target.
• Its emission spectrum consists of
– White radiation, the wavelengths of which are
related to the electron energy losses (E) as they
are decelerated through Planck’s equation
 – characteristic radiations, of discrete wavelengths,
which arise from ionization of inner shell electron
levels followed by electron relaxation
• The emitted X-rays are generally collimated
and made monochromatic using filters or
crystal monochromators.
 Interaction with matter
• When X-rays interact with matter, elastic scattering occurs when
X-rays are scattered by the electrons in the material and involves
the interaction between the negatively charged electron cloud
and the electromagnetic field of the incident X-rays. Electrons
respond to the applied field, oscillate and emit an EM wave (X-
ray) identical in wavelength and phase to the incident X-ray.
• Inelastic scattering occurs when the incident X-ray photons give
up all or part of their energy to individual electrons associated
with atoms. These electrons are excited to higher energy levels
or ionized and escape from the solid as photo-electrons. The
ionized atoms in the solid undergo de-excitation to produce a
variety of secondary signals
• Alternatively, X-rays can lose part of their
energy to an electron in a high-energy
collision known as Compton scattering.
Overall, X-rays tend to undergo mainly elastic
scattering with heavy elements (i.e., those
with a large atomic number), while for light
elements inelastic scattering predominates.
Electrons and their interaction with matter

• Electrons are produced either by thermionic (heat) or by

electric field emission from sharp metallic tips.
• Low-angle (1–100), coherent elastic scattering of
electrons occurs via the interaction of the electrons with
the electron cloud associated with atoms in a solid.
• High-angle, incoherent elastic (back)scattering (10–1800)
occurs via interaction of the negatively charged
electrons with the nuclei of atoms.
 Types of electron scattering
• Phonon scattering

• Plasmon scattering
• Single-electron excitation
The incident electron transfers energy to single
electrons, resulting in ionization of atoms. The
mean free path for this event is of the order of
micrometres. Lightly bound valence electrons
may be ejected from atoms, and if they escape
from the specimen surface, they may be used to
form secondary electron images in the SEM.
• Direct radiation losses
• The principal direct radiation losses are the X-
ray emission caused by the deceleration of
electrons. The energy losses can approach the
total incident beam energy in the limit of full
deceleration.