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One is a Joseph Nat ak i Byn oe This Photo by Unknown author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND.
C H E M I C A L S E N S E S : TA S T E A N D S M E L L

O L FA C T O RY R E C E P T O R

What is an Olfactory Receptor?

Olfactory receptors are receptors that’s able to
detect air-borne odor molecules that enter the nasal
cavity and bind to it. The activation of olfactory
receptors results in olfactory receptor neurons
sending an impulse to the brain olfactory system.
olfactory
epithelium

Olfactory receptor, likewise, called smell

receptor, are protein equipped for binding
odour molecules that plays a central role
in the sense of smell (olfaction). In
terrestrial vertebrates, receptors are
situated on olfactory receptor cells, which
are situated in exceptionally huge
numbers, millions, and are bunched inside
a little region toward the rear of the nasal
cavity, forming an olfactory epithelium.
 bone framework

The bony framework of the nose

is part of the skull, but the outer
nose is supported only by bone
above; lower down, its shape is
kept by cartilaginous plates.

The nasal cavities are separated

by a septum covered in its lower
two-thirds by thick, highly
vascular mucous membrane. In
its upper part it is covered by the
less vascular but more specialized
olfactory membrane.
 Jacobson's septum is made up of
ethmoid above, vomer below, and the
septal cartilage in front. The outer
wall of each nasal cavity is divided
into three meatuses by the
overhanging turbinated bones.

Above the superior turbinated bone is

a space between it and the roof
known as the sphenoethmoidal
recess, into the back of which the
sphenoidal air sinus opens.

This is the vestigial remnant of

Jacobson's organ.
 A taste receptor is a type of cellular
receptor which facilitates the sensation
of taste.

Taste receptors are found throughout the

oral cavity, although many are clustered
circumvallate on taste papillae on the tongue's dorsal
surface. Fungiform papillae, which are
mushroom-shaped structures seen
throughout.
foliate
fungiform
Circumvallate, fungiform, and foliate
papillae are the structures that house the
taste buds. Taste buds are a collection of
differentiated epithelial cells that
filifor respond to the 5 basic tastes and transmit
m that information to the CNS. Filiform
papillae are trigeminal and senses touch,
temperature, and pain.
The taste receptor cells that make up taste buds are responsible for
sending perceptions of taste to the brain. These cells regenerate quickly
and have an average lifespan of only eight to 12 days.
 Age
Taste discrimination tends to
decrease with increasing age. Taste
loss becomes apparent in your late
50s.
Meals
Sensitivity is reduced for
between one and four hours
after a meal, depending on what
the meal included.
Hunger
Hunger affects how food tastes by
making hungry people
more sensitive to sweetness
and saltiness.

FA C T O R S T H AT M O D I F Y T H E S E N S E O F
TA S T E
While most people notice a distinction between these categories of tastes, not everyone tastes things in the same way. That’s
because of how taste buds detect certain molecules varies from person to person.
 Obesity Smoking
Children and adolescents who are obese have less When smoking a cigarette or cigar, the smoker places the
sensitive taste buds. That means for obese children, sweet taste buds in contact with chemical compounds that greatly
foods taste-less intensely sweet, bitter foods are milder, and decrease the taste buds’ ability to register salty, sweet, sour
salt is not as readily perceived. and bitter tastes
 Pregnancy Colds/ Flu/ Allergies

During pregnancy, nearly two-thirds of women

When suffering from a cold, individuals frequently complain
experience changes in taste. Pregnant women have been found to
that they have lost their sense of taste. In reality, they have
have a reduced sensitivity to salty tastes, which may be the
lost their sense of smell. Obstruction of air passages reduces
body’s way of ensuring increased salt intake during pregnancy.
olfactory perception, a key component of how we taste.
 Disease Temperature

Persons with a disease for e.g cancer would have reduced taste
Taste buds can be put out of action by both high and low
sensitivity due to their compromised physical conditions.
temperatures. Increasing temperature may increase the

response to sweetness and decrease it to saltiness

and bitterness. Decreasing temperature can increase the

response to bitterness and decrease the response to sourness.

Taste medium
Adaptation
SOLIDS vs LIQUIDS

The taste buds can only detect flavors that

are dissolved in a liquid. You cannot taste a
dry substance with a dry tongue.
THE THORACIC
CAGE:
manubrium
STERNUM

The sternum or the breastbone is

located in the middle of your
chest. It protects the organs
(heart, chest blood vessels and body
lungs) of the torso from (gladiolus
)
injury and also serves as a
connection point for other bones
and muscles. The sternum xiphoid
consists of three parts: The process
Manubrium, the body of the
sternum, which is known as
the Gladiolus, and the Xiphoid
process.
 The Manubrium is the thickest and strongest portion of the sternum. It is
jogular attached to the body of the sternum at a transverse ridge forming the sterna angle
notch
also known as the Angle of Louis. It is an important landmark for nurses and
other health care professionals because it will help us to locate and identify the
clavicle intercostals space of each rib which is also helpful in locating the apical pulse or
notch
listening to heart or lung sounds during assessments. The Manubrium is a
quadrangular shaped area located at the superior or upper portion of the sternum.
At the top border of the sternum there is a notched area which is called the
Jugular Notch (or suprasternal notch), and it can be visible on the neck. On each
side of the Jugular Notch there are two clavicle notches which articulate with the
sternal end of the clavicle bones which forms the sterno-clavicular joint. The
first and second pair of ribs will articulate with the manubrium, but the second
pair of the rib is attached to the sternum with an articulation at the partial facet
(or demifacet) at the manubrium and a partial facet on the body of the sternum.
On each side of the body of sternum, laterally, there are several other facets or notches
which allows for the attachment of the costal cartilages of the second to the seventh ribs.
There are seven true ribs that have their own costal cartilage for articulation with the
sternum. The seventh facet is usually shared by both the body of the sternum and the
Xiphoid process.

The inferior or lower section of the sternum is called the Xiphoid process. It is
composed mostly of cartilage, and it closely begins to calcify as you age. The cartilage
is located around the ninth thoracic vertebra, and it allows for the attachment of the
seventh rib via the costal cartilage as well as important muscles such as the diaphragm.
 When we breathe the sternum moves continually with the rib cage. The ribs and clavicle (collar bone) is
attached to the sternum. However, when it is broken or fractured it can be difficult to breathe, laugh or even
take a deep breath. The sternum being fractured can cause trauma. “It occurs when you have had a direct
impact to your breastbone from a motor vehicle accident where the chest hits the steering wheel or by a fall”,

Sternum pain is a discomfort in the area of the chest that contains the sternum. This is caused by a
condition called Costochondritis. “This occurs when the cartilage that connects your ribs to your sternum
becomes inflamed; causing chest pain that gets worse when you cough or breathe in deeply”, (Jewel, 2018). A
physician may use a X-tray or a CT scan (computed tomography) to see where the fracture can be located; an
ultrasound may be performed to look at the organs that is contained under the sternum and ribcage to make sure
that there is any damage found (Bently, Journey, Ponnarasu, 2021). The repair of the sternum can be pain free
without surgery. Victims with sternum fractures would be advised to avoid activities that would reinjure their
breastbone area.
RIBS

Ribs are a set of 12 paired bones that anteriorly connect to the

sternum and posteriorly by the vertebral column, to form a
protective cage (Rib Cage). Ribs are made up of flat bones, and
like any flat bone whose sole purpose is to protect, in our case
one of the main purpose of ribs are to protect some of our vital
organs, namely the heart and lungs.

Ribs are also responsible for our breathing mechanism with the
assistance of our intercostal muscles (muscles found in between
the ribs) and diaphragm that all closely work together with the
lungs to allow us to breathe in the ribcage where all ribs are
connected to the spine, their lives the existence of two types of
ribs, True and False.
T R U E A N D FA L S E R I B S

True Ribs
True ribs are categorized as the top seven true
(7) pairs of ribs that are connected to the ribs
Sternum (Breastbone) Coastal Cartilage.

False Ribs
These bones are the remaining three (3)
pairs of ribs that are noticeably shorter false
than the True Ribs. Instead of being ribs
connected to the sternum in front, they are
connected to the lowest True Rib
 BONES OF THE LOWER
LIMBS

Thigh

The lower limbs carry our total body weight when

we are erect. The three segments of the lower limbs
Leg
are much thicker and stronger than the comparable
bones of the upper limb.

Foot
THE THIGH
head
greater
trochanter
lesser
The femur (fe′mur), or thigh bone, is the only Intertrochanteric Intertrochant
trochanter
line -eric crest
bone in the thigh. It is the heaviest, strongest, and gluteal
longest bone in the body. Its proximal end has a tuberosity

ball-like head, a neck, and a greater trochanter and

Proximal
lesser trochanter (separated anteriorly by the
End
intertrochanteric line and posteriorly by the
intertrochanteric crest). These markings and the
gluteal tuberosity, located on the proximal end of
the shaft, all serve as sites for muscle attachment.
The head of the femur articulates with the deep,
secure socket of the acetabulum of the hip bone.
THE THIGH
Posterior Anterior

The femur slants medially as it runs downward to join

with the leg bones, which brings the knees in line with
the body’s center of gravity. The medial course of the Distal End

femur is more noticeable in women because the

female pelvis is typically wider than that of the male.

Distally on the femur are the lateral condyle and medial lateral
lateral
medial condyle, which articulate with the tibia below. condyle condyle
condyle
Posteriorly these condyles are separated by the deep
intercondylar fossa. Anteriorly on the distal femur is
the smooth patellar surface, which forms a joint with smooth patellar
the patella, or kneecap. surface
 THE LEG
The tibia is the main part of the lower leg forming what is commonly known as the
shin. It expands at its proximal and distal ends articulating at the knee and ankle
lateral Intercondylar lateral
joints. The tibia is the second largest bone in the body and it’s a key weight-bearing
condyle eminence condyle
structure.
medial
condyl The tibia is widened by the medial and lateral condyles which aid in weight bearing.
e The condyles form a flat surface, known as the tibia plateau. This structure
articulates with the femoral condyles to form the key articulation of the knee joint.
Located between the condyles is a region called the intercondylar eminence this
projects upwards on either side of the medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles.
This area is the main site of attachment for the ligaments and the menisci of the knee
joint. The intercondylar tubercles of the tibia articulate with the intercondylar fossa
of the femur. The shaft of the tibia is prism shaped with three borders and three
surfaces anterior, posterior, and lateral.
Anterior border- palpable subcutaneously down the anterior surface
of the leg also known as the shin. The proximal aspect of the
anterior border is marked by the tibia tuberosity; the attachment
site for the patella ligament.

Posterior surface- marked by a ridge bone known as soleal line.

This line is the site of origin for part of the soleus muscle, and
extends inferomedial, eventually blending with the medial border
of the tibia. There is usually a nutrient artery proximal to the soleal
line.

Lateral border- also known as the interosseous border, it provides

attachment to the interosseous membrane that binds the tibia and
the fibula together.

The distal end of the tibia widens to assist with weight bearing. The
medial malleolus is a bony projection continuing inferiorly on the
medial aspect of the tibia. It articulates with the tarsal bones to
form part of the ankle joint. On the posterior surface of the tibia
there is a groove through which the tendon of the tibialis posterior
passes. Laterally the fibula notch where the fibula is bond to the
 Unlike the tibia bone the fibula is not a weight
bearing bone. However, it allows for the
attachment of the various muscles. Starting at
the proximal end of the fibula you’ll notice the
lateral condyle of the tibia bone, forming the
proximal tibiofibular joint. It also provides
attachment for the biceps femoris and fibularis
longus as well as various ligaments . The shaft
of the fibula is thin and ridged which allows for
the attachment of various muscles of the leg.
The lateral malleolus forms the bony part of the
outer ankle, like the medial malleolus this
articulates with the talus bone of the foot and
allows for the attachment of ligaments. Although
the fibula bone is smaller and thinner than the
tibia, the lateral malleolus of the fibula is larger
than the medial malleolus of the tibia.
T H A N K S F O R WAT C H I N G