SERVICES VI ( AR-310B)

LECTURE 4

Psychrometry & Carnot Cycle

 PSYCHROMETRY
 Psychrometry is defined as the measurement of the moisture
content of air.

 it is the science and practices associated with atmospheric air

mixtures, their control, and the effect on materials and human
comfort.

 This can be accomplished through use of psychrometric tables

or a psychrometric chart.

 The tables are somewhat more accurate, but the chart is accurate
enough for all practical purposes and is much easier to use.
 PSYCHROMETRY
 Before we start to explain the psychrometric chart, let
us review a few of the principles on which it is based.

 First, atmospheric air is a mixture consisting of dry air

and water vapour in varying relative amounts.

 It is best to think of dry air and water vapour

separately, for they behave independently of one another.

 when we warm or cool dry air, we add or remove

sensible heat only, and are not concerned with latent heat.
 PSYCHROMETRY
Air consists of two separate gases, dry air and water
vapour, which act independently, each according to its
individual properties, just as if the other were not there.

The total density of air is the sum of the densities of

the dry air and water vapour; and

the total pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of

the dry air and the partial pressure of the water vapour.
 PSYCHROMETRY
If we cool dry air, it becomes heavier per cubic foot,
provided that its pressure remains constant.
Why is cold air heavier than warm air? Cold air is denser than warm air. The molecules are
packed closer together. The amount of water vapour in the air also affects the density of the air.
The more water vapour that is in the air, the less dense the air becomes. That is why cold, dry air
is much heavier than warm, humid air. A baseball or a golf ball will travel further on a warm,
humid day than it would on a cold, dry day. Since the warm, humid air is less dense, the ball
travels through it with less friction.

Moreover, the temperatures, densities, volumes,

and pressures all vary proportionately.
 PSYCHROMETRY
In cooling air, such as in summer air conditioning, we are chiefly
concerned with:

1.Cooling the dry air, which is comparatively simple and involves sensible cooling
only. (The water vapour is such a small part of the air that we usually ignore its
sensible heat.)

2.Controlling the amount of water vapour in the air involves condensing out some
of the water vapour.

3.Circulating and distributing the air, which involves changes in density and
volume.

4.Mixing together air from two different sources, at different temperatures, and
different percents of water vapour.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS
 These four processes, along with others, involved in the
controlling of atmospheric conditions for human comfort, are
commonly referred to as psychrometric processes.

In order to arrive at the proper amounts of humidification or

dehumidification and heating or cooling necessary to effect these
changes, we make use of the psychrometric tables or charts.

The psychrometric properties in Table shown below have been

compiled through countless laboratory experiments and
mathematical calculations and are the basis for what we know as
the psychrometric chart.
PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS
Thermodynamic
Properties of Air based
on one pound of air at a
total pressure of 29.921
in.hg. (Atmospheric
pressure).
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

Here is a skeleton psychrometric chart with the dry bulb temperature

scale along the bottom of the chart. The vertical lines extending from
the bottom of the chart to the top are constant dry bulb lines, that is,
any and all points on one given line have the same dry bulb
temperature as indicated on the bottom dry bulb scale.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

Above shown a skeleton psychrometric chart with the wet bulb

temperature scale along the outer curved line at the left of the chart.
Wet bulb temperature is defined as that shown by a thermometer
whose bulb is covered with a wetted wick, and with air passing over it
at approximately 1000 fpm. The constant wet bulb lines run
downward at an angle of approximately 30° from the Horizontal.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

A skeleton psychrometric chart with the dew point scale along the
outer curved line at the left of the chart. Both the wet bulb and the
dew point scales are the same on this chart. The constant dew point
lines, however, run horizontally from the left curved line to the right.
On the right hand margin of the chart is a vertical scale which is
called the specific humidity scale giving the weight in grains of water
vapour in one pound of dry air. The constant specific humidity lines
also are horizontal and coincide with the constant dew point lines.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

Shows the skeleton psychrometric chart with the curved constant

relative humidity lines extending upward and to the right of the
chart. We noted previously that the wet bulb temperatures and the
dew point temperatures share the same scale along the outer curved
line to the left of the chart. Since the only condition where the wet
bulb temperature and the dew point are the same is at saturation, this
outer curved line represents a saturation or 100% relative humidity
condition.
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

shows the skeleton psychrometric chart with the constant specific

volume lines. These lines are at an angle of approximately 60° from
the horizontal and will increase in value as we move from left to
right. On the chart we will be using, the spacing between each line
represents a change in specific volume of .1 cu ft per lb. The values
for these constant specific volume lines are given every fifth line and
any point falling between these lines must naturally be an estimated
 PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS

is a skeleton psychrometric chart showing the constant enthalpy lines.

It will be noted that these lines are merely extensions of the wet bulb
lines, since the total heat of the air is dependent upon the wet bulb
temperature. The scale at the far left of the chart gives the total heat
of the air in Btu/lb of dry air and increases from approximately 7.2
Btu/lb at 20°F wet bulb temperature up to approximately 58.6 Btu/lb
at 92°F wet bulb.
PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS
PSYCHROMETRIC TABLES & CHARTS
 USING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
1. The weather Report reads 90 F DB and 40% RH.
What is the WB?

Using the chart, the condition of the air is at the point

of intersection of the 90 F DB line and 40% RH
line. Drawing a line of constant WB from this
point, the WB temperature reads as 71.2F.
 USING PSYCHROMETRIC CHART
2.The Air leaving a cooling coil is at 60 F DB 55 F WB. What
is its humidity ratio and specific enthalpy?

On the Chart, the condition is found by the point of intersection

of the 60 F DB and 55 F WB lines. From this point, following a
line of constant humidity ratio, read W = 57 gr w/lb d.a.
Following a line of constant enthalpy from the point (parallel to
WB lines) read h = 23.20 BTU/lb d.a.
 THEORY OF REFRIGERATION
 Boiling point of a liquid depends on the surrounding pressure.

 All matters consist of particles (molecules) which are

attracted to each other but also have a considerable velocity
energy.

 Pressure surrounding a liquid inhibits the escape of liquid

molecules. If the liquid temperature increases the molecules
increase in velocity and, at some temperature (the boiling point)
they will escape rapidly – the liquid will vaporize. Increase of
pressure will push the molecules to reach a higher velocity - a
higher temperature – to escape.
 THEORY OF REFRIGERATION
 On the other hand, if the surrounding pressure is lowered
enough, the molecules will have enough energy to escape at a
lower temperature. This is how refrigeration can be accomplished.

 A liquid is used that boils at a low temperature for the reduced

pressure that can be achieved. The surrounding pressure is
reduced below saturation pressure and the liquid suddenly starts
boiling.

 Surroundings provide the latent heat required for boiling. This

heat absorbed from the surroundings at the low temperature is
refrigeration.
 HEAT PUMP & REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 A heat pump is a machine or device that moves heat from
one location (the 'source') at a lower temperature to another
location (the 'sink' or 'heat sink') at a higher temperature
using mechanical work or a high-temperature heat source.

 Thus a heat pump may be thought of as a "heater" if the

objective is to warm the heat sink (as when warming the
inside of a home on a cold day), or a "refrigerator" if the
objective is to cool the heat source (as in the normal operation
of a freezer). In either case, the operating principles are
identical. Heat is moved from a cold place to a warm place.
 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
 According to the second law of thermodynamics heat
cannot spontaneously flow from a colder location to a
hotter area; work is required to achieve this. 

An air conditioner requires work to cool a living space,

moving heat from the cooler interior (the heat source) to
the warmer outdoors (the heat sink).

 Similarly, a refrigerator moves heat from inside the cold

icebox (the heat source) to the warmer room-temperature
air of the kitchen (the heat sink).
 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
 The operating principle of the refrigeration cycle was described
mathematically by Sadi Carnot in 1824 as a heat engine. A heat
pump can be thought of as a heat engine which is operating in
reverse.

 In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that converts heat

or thermal energy—and chemical energy—to mechanical energy,
which can then be used to do mechanical work.

 In general an engine converts energy to mechanical work. Heat

engines distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the
fact that their efficiency is fundamentally limited by Carnot's
theorem
 THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Vapour-Compression Refrigeration or vapor-compression
refrigeration system (VCRS):

 The vapour-compression uses a circulating

liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and
removes heat from the space to be cooled and
subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.

 such systems have four components: a compressor,

a condenser, a thermal expansion valve (also called
a throttle valve or metering device), and an evaporator.
 VCRS
 Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the
thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapour and is
compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature
as well.

 The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state

known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and
pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or
cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes. This is where the
circulating refrigerant rejects heat from the system and the rejected
heat is carried away by either the water or the air (whichever may
be the case)
 VCRS
 The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic
state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an
expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in
pressure. 

That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash

evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-
refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers
the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to
where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space
to be refrigerated.
 VCRS
 The cold mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in
the evaporator.

A fan circulates the warm air in the enclosed space across the
coil or tubes carrying the cold refrigerant liquid and vapour
mixture.

That warm air evaporates the liquid part of the cold

refrigerant mixture. At the same time, the circulating air is
cooled and thus lowers the temperature of the enclosed space
to the desired temperature.
 VCRS

 The evaporator is where the circulating

refrigerant absorbs and removes heat which is
subsequently rejected in the condenser and
transferred elsewhere by the water or air used in the
condenser.

To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant

vapour from the evaporator is again a saturated
vapour and is routed back into the compressor.
REFRIGERATION
CYCLE