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RESEARCH METHODS IN
INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PSYCHOLOGY

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 Learning Objectives:

Students will be able to:

• Explain the importance of theory to science and psychology
• Differentiate between internal and external validity
• Explain how research is conducted

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 Opening Case
An organization is having a problem with absenteeism
such that, on average, its employees are missing about
15 days of work per year.

Absenteeism is a very expensive problem for

organizations because it slows down production and it
costs additional dollars to replace employees who are
missing.
The company has hired you as an I/O psychologist to
help diagnose the problem, provide a potential
solution, and implement and evaluate that solution.
What will you do?
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 First, you have to figure out what the problem is.

You might do this by interviewing current plant employees, by

talking to managers, and by administering surveys.

You might need to look at the organization’s absence data and

do some statistical analysis to uncover how frequent the
absences are, when they tend to occur (e.g., Mondays and
Fridays versus days in the middle of the week), and whether they
are occurring in certain departments more than in others.

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 Second, you need to collect some historical data about
the company and its absence policy (usually a written
policy in the employee handbook) because this may
help you to understand the problem better.

Third, you use this information and your expertise in

I/O psychology to develop and implement an approach
to remedy the problem.

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Furthermore, you will need to look at the
absence data again a few months after the new
approach is under way to see whether absence
has decreased.
In addition, you might want to survey and
interview employees to see if they have noticed
any differences since (and as a result of) the
implementation of the new approach.
At each of these steps in the process, you will
need to gather data in order to understand the
problem and to evaluate the solution.

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 In this lecture we will talk about how
I/O psychologists gather data and use
it to improve their understanding of
organizational functioning.

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 Social Scientific Research
Methods

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 Requirements of Psychological
Research

Duplication
Objective
Control and
Observation
verification

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 Objective
Observation

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 Objective
Observation

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 Control

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 Control

Observations must be controlled and systematic

Conditions for objective observations must be pre-

determined- this will help the research to
understand the factors that could influence the
outcome

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 Duplication
and verification

Duplication the conditions of the

experiment and can verify

More confidence in research findings if

verified by other investigators

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 MCQ

In order to make the research unbiased, it requires that

A- there is no deliberate attempt to either to conceal or highlight something.

B- most recent and best research methods are to be used.
C- repeatability and accuracy are provided for the quality of measurement
procedures used.
D- the solution to the research problem is known in advance.

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 Goals of Science

• Description
• Prediction
• Explanation

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 MCQ

The main concept behind doing research is to _____________

A- study and explore knowledge.

B- start with a predefined and clear-cut objectives.
C- get new ideas.
D- define clear objectives.
E- all the above.

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 The Empirical Research Cycle
Research process - summarized as 5–step sequence

Statement of the problem

Design of research study

Measurement of variables

Analysis of data

Conclusions from research

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 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Statement of the problem Theory

Design of research study - Inductive method
Measurement of variables
- Deductive method

Analysis of data

Conclusions from research

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 MCQ

According to your text, which of the following is not a source of

research ideas?

a. Everyday life
b. Practical issues
c. Past research (review of literature)
d. Theory
e. All of the above are sources of research ideas

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 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Statement of the Hypothesis
problem

Statement: It is difficult for individuals in dual-career

families to experience W-F balance. (work-family)
Research Question: How can individuals in dual-
Example: career families experience WF balance?
Hypothesis: Dual-career individuals who have family
and organizational support are more likely to
experience WF balance compared to dual-career
individuals with no family and organizational support.
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 Difference Between Making a
Hypothesis and Prediction

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 There are problems with
both the inductive and
deductive approaches to
research.

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 MCQ

Which of the following is a function of theory?

a. Integrating and summarizing current knowledge

b. Making predictions
c. Explaining phenomena
d. All of the above are important functions of theory

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 MCQ

Biased research refers to

A- drawing conclusions by introducing one's own vested interest.

B- no deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something.
C- repeatability and accuracy are provided for the quality of
measurement procedures used.
D- each step of the research is valid and objective.

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 RESEARCH DESIGN
Plan of Study
- Internal & External Validity
Statement of the problem
- Naturalness of Setting
Design of research study - Degree of Control
Measurement of variables
Primary Research Methods
- Laboratory Experiment
Analysis of data - Quasi Experiment
Conclusions from research - Questionnaire
- Observation
- Qualitative
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Secondary Research 39
 MCQ

Research is considered to be more than just a way of skills, it is

_____________
 
A- planning to what, why and where type of questions to
determine a goal.
B- a way of critical thinking about professional aspects of
related to your work.
C- the research methods used within the research
methodology.
D- discovering the relationship between variables.

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 Plan of Study: Internal Validity

The extent to which we can infer

that a relationship between two
variables is causal or that absence
of a relationship implies absence
of cause.

The extent to which observed

relationship obtained from
research design/study is real or
artifactual.
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 Plan of Study: External Validity
The extent to which the findings
from a research study are
relevant to individuals and
settings beyond those
specifically examined in the
study.

The extent to which observed

relationship obtained from
research design/study are
“generalizable”.
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The term 'external validity' is concerned with:

a) the question of whether the results of a study can be generalized beyond the
specific research context.

b) whether the research question is judged to be a good research question by those

outside the study.

c) the question of whether or not social scientific findings are applicable to people's
every day, natural social settings.

d) an ambiguous concept whose meaning depends on how it is defined.

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 Plan of Study:
Naturalness of Research
Setting
Lab or Field

- "artificiality" -"naturalness"
- contrived and artificial - typically employs a
- controlled real–life setting

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 "Internal validity" refers to:

a) whether or not there is really a causal relationship between two variables.

b) whether or not the findings are relevant to the researchers' everyday lives.

c) the extent to which the researcher believes that this was a worthwhile project.

d) how accurately the measurements represent underlying concepts.

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 Plan of Study: Degree of Control

• Confounding and extraneous variables

• Manipulation—this is reflective of a high degree of
control
• Research designs that permit manipulation are
technically referred to as "experiments"
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 A variable that changes due to the action of
another variable is known as the

(A) Independent variable

(B) Extraneous variable
(C) Complex variable
(D) Dependent Variable

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 The outcome of what is being measured is termed:

(A) Independent Variable

(B) Dependent Variable
(C) Predictor variable
(D) Hypothetical Variable

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 Primary Research
There are 5 categories of types of Primary
Research:

Laboratory (experimental)
Quasi-experimental
Questionnaire
Observation
Qualitative

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 Primary Research:
Experimental Research
Experiment
• Investigator manipulates a variable under carefully
controlled conditions and observes whether changes
occur in a second variable
• Used to detect cause-and-effect relationships

Conditions that make a true experiment

• Manipulation of independent variables
• Random assignment into experimental conditions
(experimental conditions & control)
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 Primary Research: Experimental
and Control Groups
Experimental group
• Subjects who receive some special treatment in
regard to the independent variable

Control group
• Subjects who do not receive the special treatment
given to the experimental group

LOGIC: If the 2 groups are identical except for the variation

created by the manipulation of IV, then any differences between
groups must be due to manipulation of the IV
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 Research Methods Experiment

Study conducted in a contrived environment

• Benefits:
– Provides more safety
– Cause and effect relationships
• Manipulate I.V. (e.g., leadership style)
• Measure D.V. (e.g., task performance)
• Control extraneous variables (e.g., experience)
• Disadvantages:
– Time consuming
Quasi-Experiment – not randomized or unable to
manipulate IV (e.g., gender)

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 Which is the best type of research approach for
gathering causal information?

(A) Observational
(B) Informative
(C) Experimental
(D) Survey

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 Primary Research
Field Experiments: Quasi-Experiments

• Participants must be and are selected for different conditions

from pre–existing groups
• Levels of the IV are/may be selected from pre–existing values
and not created through manipulation by the researcher
• Unlike true experimental designs where participants are
randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, with
quasi–experimental designs they are NOT
• Quasi–experiments DO NOT permit the researcher to control the
assignment of participants to conditions or groups

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 Primary Research:
Naturalistic Observation
Careful, usually prolonged, observation of behavior
without intervening directly with the subjects

• No manipulation by researcher
• No random assignment

Often referred to as ex post facto designs

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 Research Methods
Naturalistic Observation
Observe overt behaviors over time
– Systematic sampling at various times
– Representative sample

• Benefits:
– Use to generate hypotheses

• Disadvantages:
– Experimenter bias
– Obtrusiveness
– Frequency of behavior occurring

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Primary Research: Survey Research
Measurement and assessment of
opinions, attitudes, and other
descriptive phenomenon usually
by means of questionnaires and
sampling methods

• Popular method of research

for I/O
psychologists
• Limitations include return rate
• Web-based survey
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 Research Methods
Questionnaire/Surve
y
Self-report to obtain data on attitudes/behaviors
conducted by phone, mail, interviews, electronically
• Benefits:
– Can collect a large quantity of data
• Disadvantages:
– Accuracy of reporting
– Representativeness of sample
– Return rate

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 Primary Research: Qualitative
A class of research methods in which the investigator takes an
active role in interacting with the subjects he or she wishes to
study
• Interview/focus group
• Ethnography: a research method that utilizes field
observation to study a society’s culture.
• Emic versus Etic
- Emic: an approach to researching phenomena
that
emphasizes knowledge derived from the
participants’
understanding of their own culture.
- Etic: An approach to researching phenomena that
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 Secondary Research Methods
A class of research methods that examines
existing information from research
Meta-analysis – statistical procedure designed to
combine the results of many individual, independently
conducted empirical studies into a single result or
outcome
Differences in studies could be due to statistical artifacts.
Issues:
- File draw effect
- Subjective nature of research
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 Activity
CASE DISCUSSION

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 CASE
DISCUSSION

Time given :15

mins

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 CASE DISCUSSION

Time given :15 mins

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 Measurement of Variables

Statement of the problem

Design of research study

Types of Measurement
Measurement of variables
Level of Measurement
Analysis of data
Characteristic
Conclusions from research

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 Measurement of Variables:
Types of Variables
Variable: Some property of an object, phenomenon, or
event whose measurement can take on two or more
values
• Independent/dependent
• Predictor/criterion
• Continuous/discrete
• Qualitative/quantitative

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 Measurement of Variables:
Types of Variables

What is the DV and what is the IV?

In a study of the effects of different types of legal arguments on
jurors’ perceptions of the guilt or innocence of a defendant,
subjects were randomly assigned to hear an argument which
related to their daily experiences or to an argument of a more
abstract and idealistic nature. After listening to one of these
legal arguments, subjects were asked to rate the guilt or
innocence of the defendant on a twelve-point scale.

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 Measurement of Variables:
Levels of Measurement
A scale is a measuring device used to assess a
person's score or status on a variable

The four basic types of scales are:

Nominal scales
Ordinal scales
Interval scales
Ratio scales

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 Measurement of Variables:
Levels of Measurement
Nominal Scale: 1=Single 2=Married
1 2 3
Ordinal Scale
Not Satisfied Satisfied Very Satisfied

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79
Interval Scale
Degrees Fahrenheit
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Ratio Scale
Weight in pounds
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 Measurement of Variables:
Characteristics of Good Measurement
Good test or
measurement system
should be:

- reliable
- valid
- objective
- standardized

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 STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF DATA

Statement of the problem

Design of research study

Measurement of variables
Purpose

Analysis of data
Distributions and Their Shape

Conclusions from research

Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Correlation
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 Statistical Analysis: Purpose

Statistical tests are procedures

that are used to:

- Describe data
- Analyze relationships
between variables
(i.e., make inferences)

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 Research Steps :
Statistical Analysis
Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics
• Descriptive stats merely describe
data
– Frequency
– Central tendency
– Variability
• Inferential stats used to test
hypotheses
– T-Test
– Analysis of variance
– Correlation
– Regression
– Non-parametrics

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 Data Analysis Central Tendency
example scores = 5, 6, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 17
_
1. Mean – average: X = ∑X
/ N Mean = 72 / 8 = 9

2. Median – middle score

(when placed in order)
- use when outliers exaggerate the
mean Median = 8.5

3. Mode – most often occurring score

Mode = 6
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 Data Analysis Variability

• Range - distance between highest and lowest score

– (Range = High score – Low score)
– Range = 17 – 5 = 12

• Standard Deviation – average distance from the mean

– S= Σ(x – x)2 / n – 1

S = (5-9) 2 + (6-9) 2 + (6-9) 2 + (8-9) 2 + (9-9) 2 + (10-9) 2 + (11-9) 2 + (17-9) 2 / 7

S = 3.85
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 Data Analysis
Skewed Frequency Distributions
20
18
16
14

Frequency
Normal or 12
10

Bell-shaped
8
6
4
2
0
Distribution 65- 75-
74
85- 95- 105- 115- 125- 135- 145- 155-
94 104 114 124 134 144 154 164
84 IQ Scores

Positively Skewed Distribution Negatively Skewed Distribution

20 30
18
16 25
14
20
Frequency

Frequency
12
10 15
8
6 10
4
2 5
0
65- 67- 69- 71- 73- 75- 77- 79- 81- 82- 84- 0
250- 260- 270- 280- 290- 300- 310- 320- 330- 340-
66 68 70 72 74 76 78 80 82 83 85
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259 269 279 289 299 309 319 329 339 349
Weight (lbs) of NFL Lineman
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 r A B C

Data Analysis Correlation A

B
1.0
.40 1.0
C .20 .09 1.0

Correlation ( r ) – Degree of relationship between

two variables
– Used for prediction
– Cannot be used to infer causation
– Range from –1 to +1
– Negative r – as one variable increases the other
decreases
– Positive r – as one variable increases so does the
other
– Zero r – no relationship between the two variables

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 Data Analysis Correlation
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 60 80 100 120
4 20
* **
3,5 * **** *
* * ***** *
*******
3 ******

Years of Practice
* **** 15
* * *
* *** ** * *
*
*
College GPA

* ***** *
2,5 * * *****
** * * * *
* ** * **
* *** * * *
2 ******** * 10
* * **
* * ** *
1,5 **
* ** * * *
* ****** ***
1 * 5
* **** * *
0,5
* **
0 0

GRE Scores Golf Scores

Positive Correlation Negative Correlation

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 Correlation Examples
• IQ scores of identical twins: r = +.86
• Phases of the moon & # acts of violence: r = .00
• Economic conditions & # lynchings: r = -.43
• Amount of ice cream sold & # drownings: r = +.60
• Price of rum in Cuba & priests salaries in New England:
r = +.38
• Number of cigarettes smoked per day & incidence of
lung cancer: r = ???

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 Statistical Analysis:
Correlation coefficients examples

Bond, F. W., Bunce, D. (2003). The Role of Acceptance and Job Control in Mental Health, Job Satisfaction,
and Work Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 1057-1067.
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 Statistical Analysis:
Correlation coefficients examples

Barling, J., Kelloway, K. E., Iverson, R. D. (2003). High-quality work, job satisfaction, and occupational
injuries. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 276-283.
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 Statistical Methods Regression

Regression Variables (used for prediction)

Yi = ß0 + ß1Xi1 + ß2Xi2 (Y = a + b1X1)
• Predictor Variable (X) – measure used to predict an
outcome (similar to independent variable)
– Example: selection test scores, years of experience,
education level
• Criterion Variable (Y) – outcome to be predicted
– Example: work performance, turnover, sales,
absenteeism,
promotion, etc.
• Example: AFOQT scores as predictors of pilot training
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performance
 Conclusions
•Theoretical and applied
implications
Statement of the problem
• Limitations
Design of research study
• Generalizability
Measurement of variables
• Size and
representativeness of
Analysis of data sample
Conclusions from research • Research method &
protocol
•Suggestions for future
research
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 Ethics in Research: What is
Ethical Research?
•Do not always
know effects ahead
of time

Gains to
Participant Field • Ethical guidelines
Cost change over time

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 Ethics in Research:
What is Ethical Research?
Ethically based research is concerned about the welfare of the
research participant, maintaining honesty in conducting and
reporting scientific research, giving appropriate credit for ideas and
effort and considering how knowledge gained through research
should be used.
There are no clear “right” or “wrong’ answers.
Treating research participants ethically matters not only for the
welfare of the individuals themselves but also for the continued
effectiveness of behavioral science as a scientific discipline

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 Ethics in Research:
Protecting Participants
Type of Threats
- Past research: e.g., Milgram studies
- Participants may be told they failed an IQ or social skills test
-Participant may learn something negative about themselves
(tendency to stereotype others or they make unwise
decisions)
- Participants may perform behavior they are later
embarrassed about

The Potential for Lasting Impact

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 Ethics in Research:
Providing Freedom of Choice

Conducting research outside the laboratory

- Participant may not know research is happening
- Institutions

Securing Informed Consent

Weighing informed consent versus the research
goals

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 Ethics in Research:
Power Differentials

Avoiding Abuses of Power

Respecting Participants’
Privacy
- anonymous vs. confidential

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 Research in Summary
Statement of the problem

Design of research study

Each stage
Measurement of variables should be
conducted in an
Analysis of data ethical and
scientific
Conclusions from research manner

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