Tiruveni. Movva (M.

pharmacy)
Chebrolu Hanumaiah institute of pharmaceutical sciences
chowdavaram
Definition

Compression is the process of applying pressure to a

material.

 In pharmaceutical tabletting an appropriate volume of

granules in a die cavity is compressed between an upper and
lower punch to consolidate the material into a single solid
matrix, which subsequently ejected from the die cavity as an
intact tablet.
 Transitional repacking or particle rearrangement

 The particle size distribution of the granulation and the shape of

the granules determine the initial packing as the granulation is
delivered into the die cavity.

 The granules flow with respect to each other, with the finer
particles entering the void between the larger particles undergo
less particles and the bulk density of the granulation is increased

 Spherical particles undergo less particle rearrangement than

irregular particles
 Deformation at points of contact

 Elastic deformation
 Plastic deformation
 Deformation increases the area of true contact and the
formation of potential bonding areas.

 Fragmentation and deformation

 Fragmentation increases the number of particles and forms new,

clean surfaces that are potential bonding areas.
 In some materials fragmentation does not occur because the
stress are relieved by plastic deformation.
 Theories of Bonding:

 Mechanical theory:

 The mechanical theory that proposes that under pressure that

individual particles undergo elastic, plastic, or brittle
deformation and that the edges of the particles intermesh,
forming a mechanical bond.

 Intermolecular theory:

 The molecules at the surface of a solid have unsatisfied inter

molecular forces, which interact with other particles in true
contact.
 van der walls forces interact to consolidate the particles.
 Liquid surface-film theory:

 Bonding due to the presence of a thin liquid film, at the

surface of the particle induced by the energy of compression.

 The effect of pressure on the melting point and solubility of a

material is essential to bonding.

 The relation of pressure and melting point is expressed by

the clapeyron equation
dt/dp=T(V1-Vs)/∆H

 If the pressure at the points of true contact is exerted only on

the solid, and the liquid phase is subjected to a constant
atmospheric pressure, the relation ship simplifies to
dt/dps=VsT/ΔH
 Deformation of the solid body

 As the applied pressure is further increased, the bonded solid

is consolidated towards a limiting density by plastic or elastic
deformation of the tablet within the die

 Decompression

 The success or failure to produce an intact tablet depends on

the stress induced by elastic rebound and the associated
deformation processes during decompression and ejection.
 Ejection

 As the lower punch rises and pushes the tablet upward

there is a continued residual die wall pressure and
considerable energy may be expended due to the die wall
friction

 As the tablet is removed from the die, the lateral pressure

is relieved, and the tablet under goes elastic recovery
with an increase in the volume of that portion of the
tablet removed from the die
Properties of tablet influenced by compression

 Density and porosity

 The apparent density of a tablet is the quotient of the

weight and the geometric volume. The apparent density
density of a tablet is exponentially related to the applied
pressure

Eg:
 When equal weights of aspirin and lactose are
compressed with 10% starch, the porosity of the lactose
tablet, is of magnitude between that of the individual
lactose and aspirin tablets at corresponding pressure.
 Hardness and tensile strength

The ability of a tablet to withstand mechanical handling

and transport has been evaluated by various types of
tests however, the data from these tests seldom can be
correlated in a precise manner.
Eg:
Lactose-aspirin tablets, compressed mixtures have a
hardness values between those of tablets composed of
the individual ingredients.
 Specific surface

 Specific surface is the surface area of 1g of material

 As the lactose granules, which were granulated by

adding 10% starch paste, are compressed, the specific
surface is increase to a maximal value, indicating the
formation of new surfaces due the fragmentation of the
granules.

 Further increase in applied pressure produce a

progressive decrease in specific surface as the particles
bond.
 Disintegration

 As the applied pressure used to prepare the tablet is

increased, the disintegration time is longer.
Frequently, there is relation ship between the
disintegration time and the applied pressure

 Sulfadiazine tablets, the concentration of a

disintegrating agent influences the relationship
between applied pressure and disintegration time.
 Dissolution

 If the fragmentation of the granules occurs during

compression, the dissolution is faster as the applied pressure
increases and the fragmentation increases the surface
area.

 If the bonding of the particles is more, the increase in the

applied pressure causes a decrease in dissolution.
 Dissolution-Pressure Relationship:

 The dissolution is more rapid as the applied pressure is

increased

 The dissolution is slowed as the applied pressure is

increased.

 The dissolution is faster, to a maximum, as the applied force

is increased and then further increase in applied pressure
slows dissolution.

 The dissolution is slowed to a minimum as the applied

pressure is increased, further increase in applied pressure
speeds dissolution.
 Compression and consolidation under high loads

 Forces are large enough to exceed the elastic limit of the solid

 Plastic deformation and/or brittle fracture results in the

generation of new, clean surfaces , which being pressed against
one another, under cold welding

 The structure must be strong enough to withstand the new

stress induced during release of the applied load those
generated by ejection form the die
 Consolidation is accentuated in those regions adjacent to the
intense shear to which material is subjected, as it is
compressed axially and pushed long the wall surface

 Smaller tablet height-to-diameter ratios are preferred

 The resistance to differential movement of particles in the

applied forces not being transmitted uniformly throughout
the entire mass

FL=F A. e-KH/D
 Effect of friction

 Interparticulate friction:
 This arises at particle /particle contacts
 More significant at low applied loads
 collide silica is a common example

 Die-wall friction:
 This results from material being pressed against the
die wall and moved it down
 This effect become dominant at high applied forces
 magnesium stearate is a common choice as a lubricant
 Force distribution

 FA =FL + FD
FA = force applied to upper punch
FL = proportion of it transmitted to the lower punch
FD= reaction at the die wall due to friction at this surface

 Force volume relation ships

 The end of the compressional process may be recognized

as being the point at which all air spaces have been
eliminated i.e.,
Vb=Vt and therefore E=0.
 Methods of Decreasing Porosity:

 The filling of spaces by interparticulate slippage.

 The filling of the small voids by deformation or

fragmentation at higher loads.

 This process can be expressed mathematically.

E0-E/E0(1-E)=K1e-K /p+K3e-K /p
2 1
 The degree of compression achieved for a given load depends
upon the initial porosity

 once appreciable force has been applied, the relationship

between applied pressure and some volume parameter such
as porosity is given by
LogE =LogEo-K.P.

 When the pressure is zero, and K is constant

1/1-E= K1- K2 . Log p
 Heckel plots:

 The Heckel equation is based

upon analogous behavior to
a first order reaction,
Log1/E=KyP+Kr

 Measuring the applied

compressional force F and the
movements of the punches
during a compression cycle
for cylindric tablet, P is given
by
P=4F/π.D2

D is the tablet diameter

E=100.[1-4W/ρt.Π.D2.H]
 Compaction profile

 Represents the proportion of the

applied pressure
transmitted radially to the die
wall

 Poisson ratio, is a material-

dependent property affecting the

compressional processes

 When elastic limits of the material

is high, elastic
deformation occurs

 Elastic relaxation depends upon

the value of young’s
modulus.

 If the material readily undergoes

plastic deformation with a
constant yield stress
 Energy involved in compaction

 Lubrication has no apparent effect on the actual amount of

energy required to compress the material
The total work involved, WT,
D max

WT = ∫Df=0 F.dD

 Strength of tablet

 The mechanical strength of tablet has been described in

variety of ways, including of hardness, bending strength,
fracture resistance friability, and crushing strength.
 Crushing strength

 That compressional force which when applied diametrically to

a tablet, just fracture it.
ST =2FC/D.H
 The work Wf required to cause tablet failure

Wf =2/π DH.∫Fdz
 Linear proportionality with disintegration time and log FA and
inverse proportionality with porosity, over normal ranges of
compressional force

 Failure may be propagated through the granules themselves,

Sc = K.d-a
 The inherent cohesiveness of very fine particles lead to even
stronger tablets for a particular compressive force.
 Friability

 It measures the weight loss on subjecting the tablets to a

standardized agitation procedure

 The friability, f, is given by:

f=100(1-wo /w)

 Values of f from 0.8 to 1.0% are regarded as the upper limit

of acceptability.

 Hardness and tensile strength data are used to define three

dimensionless indices (strain index, bonding index, and
brittle fracture index) that were used to quantify the relative
tabletting performance
 Lamination of tablets

 The tablet structure fails on ejection from the die or during

subsequent operations such as coating.

 Occur with fine particle size of materials, which tend to pack

poorly.

 Slow compressional rates and use of multi stage compression

presses often reduce capping tendencies.

 Compressed at high speed partial vacuum, classical capping

was minimized

 Inclusion of components in the formula to enhance bonding

and provide a matrix of plastically deforming material for
stress relief.
 Instrumentation of tablet machine

 Instrumenting tablet provide information on the compaction

characteristics of the major components in a formulation, and
on the effect of additives upon them.

 Mechanism of tabletting process involves the utilization of

unsatisfied bonds at the solid surface

 This process is enhanced by the generation of large areas of

clean surface, which are then pressed together, as a might
occur if appreciable brittle fracture and plastic deformation
were introduced into the system.
 Single-station presses

 Strain gauge network as a transducer for measuring the

magnitude of the force operating during the compression
cycle.

 They should be bonded as near to the active site.

 The bonding must be over the entire area of the gauge

where the elastic change in linear dimension of the stress-
bearing member can be measured.
 The die wall instrumentation requires matching of the die-
wall to accommodate the gauges and reduce the thickness to
a point at which adequate sensitivity is achieved

 The original geometry is restored with silicon rubber or

similar material.

 When subjected to external forces, these materials develop an

electrical charge proportional to the effect of the force
Piezo-electric Transducer:

Disadvantage:
 The charge inevitably dissipates with time.

Advantages:
 High sensitivity
 Robust construction
 No bonding to machine fabric, which therefore allows
easy changing of tooling.
 Multi-station presses

 Inherent difficulty in retrieving electrical signals from a

revolving turret.

 Overcame this difficulty by employing radiotelemetry to

transmit the force signal from strain-gauged upper and lower
punches to external recorders.

 For a give machine, the best location probably depends upon

its actual design.

 Sufficient to induce an adequate change in gauge resistance

while not exceeding its elastic limit.

 Cast iron components are unsuitable because of variability in

their modulus of elasticity and poisson ratio. Parts constructed
with steel
 Signal processing

 The signals from the instrumentation are DC voltages and can

be retrieved, stored, and processed by a common means.

 Display the signals on the cathode ray oscillograph since this

enables instant visualization of the instrumentation out put.

 Ultraviolet recording oscillographs provide better definition of

traces and can facilitate a larger number of simultaneous
recording channels.

 The analog signals can be fed by an A-to-D converter into

memory locations.
Role of instrumentation in production

 The design of instrumentation exercises some degree of

control over the tableting process.

 The weight and hardness deviations can be minimized by:

1. The formulation is homogeneous(i.e has uniform density)
2. The compressional force/tablet weight function is
contact.
3. The volume of the die cavities at the point of maximum
compression is constant.

 The system produces a series of voltage pulses of short

duration ,each proportional to the weight of an individual
tablet.
 The individual compression pulses can also be used to drive
counting mechanisms.

 One can set upper and lower limits for acceptable tablet
weight and then distinguish pulses from tablet weight lying
outside these out-of-specifications tablets exceeds some
preset value, a relay can be tripped to activate an alarm
and/or the machine can be automatically stopped.

 The second approach is to take the amplified output signals

and feed them into AC signal.

 This average DC voltage is compared with a reference

voltage, and any difference is converted into an AC signal,
which is amplified and used to drive a two-phase
servomotor.
The motor can be connected to the weight or pressure
adjustment control of the press , so that any change in the
average compressional force is reflected in an adjustment
of either the weight or force control.
The response of the instrumentation is a direct function of
the property needing to be monitored.

Stresses generated in certain parts of the machine frame

are directly proportional to the punch forces, which in are
related to compressional weights.

Instrumented tablet machine technology better

understanding of the tabletting process will assist in
formulation development and batch quality control.
References:

 The Theory And Practice Of Industrial Pharmacy By

Lachman, Liberman, kanig.
pg.no.66-95
 pharmaceutical dosage forms tablet volume-2 edited by
herbert A.liberman, leon lachman, and
jousph B. schwartz.
pg.no.201-221