POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Post harvest technology is inter-disciplinary "Science and Technique" applied to agricultural

produce after harvest for its protection, conservation, processing, packaging, distribution,
marketing, and utilization to meet the food and nutritional requirements of the people in
relation to their needs. It has to develop in consonance with the needs of each society to
stimulate agricultural production; prevent post-harvest losses, improve nutrition and add
value to the products. In this process, it must be able to generate employment, reduce poverty
and stimulate growth of other related economic sectors. The process of developing of post
harvest technology and its purposeful use needs an inter-disciplinary and multi-dimensional
approach, which must include, scientific creativity, technological innovations, commercial
entrepreneurship and institutions capable of inter-disciplinary research and development all of
which must respond in an integrated manner to the developmental needs.

IMPORTANCE OF POST HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Importance of Post-harvest technology lies in the fact that it has capability to meet food
requirement of growing population by eliminating avoidable losses making more nutritive
food items from low grade raw commodity by proper processing and fortification, diverting
portion of food material being fed to cattle by way of processing and fortifying low grade
food and organic wastes and by-products into nutritive animal feed. Post-harvest technology
has potential to create rural industries. In India, where 80 percent of people live in the

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villages and 70 percent depend on agriculture have experienced that the process of
industrialization has shifted the food, feed and fibre industries to urban areas. This process has
resulted in capital drain from rural to urban areas, decreased employment opportunities in the
rural areas, balance of trade in favour of urban sector and mismatched growth in economy and
standard of living including the gap between rural and urban people. It is possible to evolve
appropriate technologies, which can establish agricultural based rural industries.

The purpose of post harvest processing is to maintain or enhance quality of the products and
make it readily marketable. Prime example of post harvest processing of agricultural products
is rice, a major crop in India. Paddy is harvested and processed into rice. Experiments with
paddy crop in farmer's field in India have shown that if the crop is harvested at 20 to 22 per
cent moisture as traditionally done, the field yield is increased by 10 to 20 percent. Similar is
the case with respect to wheat, jowar and other crops.

POST HARVEST LOSSES

Post-harvest Losses In a hungry and increasingly competitive world, reducing postharvest

food losses is a major agricultural goal. For highly perishable commodities, such as tomatoes,
squash, and peaches, as much as 30 percent of the harvested crop may be lost to postharvest
diseases before it reaches the consumer. Investments made to save food after harvest are
usually less costly for the grower and the consumer and less harmful to the environment than
efforts to increase production. Even a partial reduction in postharvest losses can significantly
reduce the overall cost of production and lessen our dependence on marginal land and other
scarce resources. Many factors contribute to postharvest losses in fresh fruits and vegetables.
These include environmental conditions such as heat or drought, mechanical damage during
harvesting and handling, improper postharvest sanitation, and poor cooling and environmental
control. Efforts to control these factors are often very successful in reducing the incidence of
disease. For example, reducing mechanical damage during grading and packing greatly
decreases the likelihood of postharvest disease because many disease-causing organisms
(pathogens) must enter through wounds. Chemicals have been widely used to reduce the
incidence of postharvest disease. Although effective, many of these materials have been
removed from the market in recent years because of economic, environmental, or health
concerns. Increased interest in the proper postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables
has prompted the widespread use of flumes, water dump tanks, spray washers, and
hydrocoolers. To conserve water and energy, most postharvest processes that wet the produce

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recirculate the water after it has passed over the produce. This recirculated water picks up dirt,
trash, and disease-causing organisms. If steps are not taken to prevent their Paper spread,
these organisms can infect all the produce that is subsequently processed. In the past, various
fungicides and bactericides have been used (alone or in combination with chlorination) to
prevent the transmission of diseases. These materials have often been favoured over
chlorination because they provide some residual protection after treatment. At present,
chlorination is one of the few chemical options available to help manage postharvest diseases.
When used in connection with other proper postharvest handling practices, chlorination is
effective and relatively inexpensive. It poses little threat to health or the environment.

POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Fruit and vegetables that are fresh and have good flavour bring repeat sales and may bring
higher prices. How produce is handled directly affects freshness and, with some produce, how
well peak flavour is retained. For most produce, maintaining cool temperatures (to slow
deterioration) and high humidity (to prevent moisture loss) are the most effective means of
preserving quality. However, there are several things producers, handlers, and retailers can do
to assure that fruit and vegetables going to the market or into storage are of high quality.

Harvesting and handling:

1.Provide gentle harvesting and handling to avoid cuts, abrasions, and bruising damage that
allow decay-causing micro organisms to enter the tissue.

2.Harvest produce at the peak of quality. This assures greatest value at the time the
commodity begins a sales period or storage period for later sale. Because most produce begin
to deteriorate at the time of harvest, the highest-quality produce will have the greatest shelf
life.

3.If possible, harvest during the cool part of the day. Because temperature controls the rate at
which produce deteriorates, harvesting when the produce is coolest (usually just after sunrise)
will extend their quality.

4.If storage facilities are not available, harvest only as much produce at one time as you can
pack or sell before the quality deteriorates. This also allows displays at roadside markets to be
replenished with freshly harvested produce throughout the day, which ensures highest quality
available to customers.

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5.Make successive plantings and use several varieties of varying maturity to spread the
harvest season. This ensures that freshly picked material will be available over an extended
period.

6.Shade is cheap and important. Use trees or a shade cover on field wagons, trucks, and
market areas. Hold produce in a shaded area while awaiting packing. Perform sorting and
packing operations in a shaded location. Vegetables exposed to the sun will absorb solar
energy and become warmer than those in the shade. This is especially true of dark-collared
vegetables, such as zucchini squash, eggplants, peppers, watermelons, green beans, and
tomatoes, which are often harvested during the middle of summer when solar energy is at a
maximum. Workers will be more comfortable and, thus, work more efficiently in a shaded
area. Shade may be provided by an open shed, shade cloth over a simple framework, or even
by a large tree.

7.At farm markets, display only good-quality vegetables for sale. Those of poor quality will
never improve and will detract from sales of good-quality produce. Frequent sorting to
remove poor quality material will present the best display possible to customers. Sales
displays should be out of direct sun.

8.Remind customers to keep produce cool and prevent moisture loss during transportation
and storage at home.

9.For commodities that loose quality rapidly and those to be shipped to market, special
postharvest washing, handling, and cooling are required to maintain quality. Take care to
avoid bruising in transportation to the packing shed, during unloading, washing and grading.

POSTHARVEST HANDLING SYSTEMS: MINIMALLY PROCESSED FRUITS AND

VEGETABLES

"Minimally processed" horticultural products are prepared and handled to maintain their fresh
nature while providing convenience to the user. Producing minimally processed products
involves cleaning, washing, trimming, coring, slicing, shredding, and so on. Minimally
processed fruits and vegetables include peeled and sliced potatoes; shredded lettuce and
cabbage; washed and trimmed spinach; chilled peach, mango, melon, and other fruit slices;
vegetable snacks, such as carrot and celery sticks, and cauliflower and broccoli florets;
packaged mixed salads; cleaned and diced onions; peeled and cored pineapple; fresh sauces;

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peeled citrus fruits; and microwaveable fresh vegetable trays. Whereas most food processing
techniques stabilize the products and lengthen their storage and shelf life, light processing of
fruits and vegetables increases their perishability. Because of this and the need for increased
sanitation, preparation and handling of these products require knowledge of food science and
technology and postharvest physiology.

Physiological Responses Minimal processing generally increases the rates of metabolic

processes that cause deterioration of fresh products. The physical damage or wounding
caused by preparation increases respiration and ethylene production within minutes, and
associated increases occur in rates of other biochemical reactions responsible for changes in
colour, flavour, texture, and nutritional quality (such as vitamin loss). The greater the degree
of processing, the greater the wounding response. Control of the wound response is the key to
providing a processed product of good quality. The impact of bruising and wounding can be
reduced by cooling the product before processing. Strict temperature control after processing
is also critical in reducing wound-induced metabolic activity, as shown in the respiration data
of intact and shredded cabbage stored at different temperatures. Other techniques that
substantially reduce damage include use of sharp knives, maintenance of stringent sanitary
conditions, and efficient washing and drying (removal of surface moisture) of the cut product.
Product Preparation Minimal processing may occur in a "direct chain" of preparation and
handling in which the product is processed, distributed, and then marketed or utilized. Many
products are also handled in an "interrupted chain" in which the product may be stored before
or after processing or may be processed to different degrees at different locations. Because of
this variation in time and point of processing, it would be useful to be able to evaluate the
quality of the raw material and predict the shelf life of the processed product. Minimally
processed products may be prepared at the source of production or at regional and local
processors. Whether a product may be processed at source or locally depends on the
perishability of the processed form relative to the intact form, and on the quality required for
the designated use of the product. Processing has shifted from destination (local) to source
processors as improvements m equipment, modified atmosphere packaging, and temperature
management have become available. In the past, processed lettuce operations often salvaged
lettuce remaining in the fields after harvesting for fresh market. It is now recognized that
first-cut lettuce should be used for maximum processed product quality. After trimming and
coring, piece size may be reduced with rotating knives or by tearing into salad size pieces.
Damage to cells near cut surfaces influences the shelf life and quality of the product.

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For example: shredded lettuce cut by a sharp knife with a slicing motion has a storage life
approximately twice that of lettuce cut with a chopping action. Shelf life of lettuce is less if a
dull knife is used rather than a sharp knife. Sliced fruits present an attractive appearance; the
portions produced being of a convenient size for eating. Rotary cutting knives are usually
employed, the knives being set to cut the material being presented to them, often on a
vibrating belt, into parallel slices of the desired thickness. In other slicing operations the fruit
is forced through a tube containing stationary knife edges arranged radially along the length
of the tube. Dicing- the cutting of material into cubes-usually follows a preliminary slicing
operation, which produces slices of the desired thickness. These slices are then fed onto a
conveyor belt containing a series of studs, which hold the slices in position as the belt carries
them against a rotary knife assembly, which cuts them into strips. The strips then pass
through a further cutting zone at right angles to stripping section. This produces the required
cube.

Shredding, the food material is torn into small fragments, the average size of the pieces
depending on the type of machine and on residence time in the action zone. Shredding often
precedes dehydration, the increase in surface aiding the rate process. Some examples can be
given for cutting and shredding: Baton cutter This machine is ideal for cutting burdocks
(deacon), carrots, potatoes, radishes, cucumbers, onions, etc. into crudités or tenuous (strip of
paper). Unlike the conventional reciprocating type it uses a one-way slicing mechanism. All
the operator need do is feed the raw materials (cut evenly in advance to a specified length)
into the machine continuously. The blade setting size can be changed when the cutting size is
changed. Examples of precision-cut product (left to right: shredded cabbage, thin-sliced
cucumber, thin-sliced tomato, shredded parsley, shredded spinach) Variable speed belt and
knife allows a great variation of cutting sizes Fruit and vegetables are held snugly between the
top and bottom belts to ensure they are well positioned for precision cutting Cleaning
Methods

1. Soaking Soaking is used as a preliminary stage in the cleaning of root vegetables and other
foods, which are heavily contaminated.

Adhering soil is softened and some is removed, together with stones, sand and abrasive
materials, which would damage the machinery, used in the later stages of cleaning. The
efficiency of soaking is improved:

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i)by moving the water relative to the product by means of caged propeller-stirrers built into
the tank,

ii)by moving the product relative to the water either by means of slow-moving paddles or by
feeding the raw material into a horizontal perforated drum which rotates whilst partially
submerged in the soak tank. Warm water improves the efficiency of soaking but the rate of
spoilage of foods may be increased.

2.Spray washing The efficiency of spray washing depends on: water pressure employed, the
volume of water used, the water temperature, the distance of the food from the spray origin,
the time of exposure of the food to the sprays and the number of spray jets used. A small
volume of water, at high pressure, is the most effective general combination. However
damage may be caused to ripe soft fruits such as strawberries and to delicate vegetables like
asparagus. Spray drum washers and spray belt washers are used.

3.Flotation washing This method depends on a difference in buoyancy between the desired
and desired parts of the food to be cleaned. Thus bruised or rotten apples, which sink in
water, may be removed by fluming the fruit into a tank and collecting the overflow of sound
fruit. Heavy debris can be removed by fluming dirty produce over a series of adjustable weirs
arranged in series. Thin film sheeting action gently transfers product into open flume system

4.Ultrasonic Cleaning Air and water agitation system for better washing action Ultrasonic
waves are sound waves of frequencies above those detectable by the human ear, i.e.
frequencies above 16 kHz. Insonation of a fluid with ultrasonic waves at frequencies of 20-
100 kHz produces a rapidly alternating pressure in the path of the waves and this leads to the
rapid formation and collapse of bubbles in the fluid. Cavitation and decavitation, as these
effects are called, result in the release of energy in the system and this energy causes violent
agitation of particles immersed in the fluid. This phenomenon may be utilised to effect the
loosening of contaminants, e.g. grit in vegetables, grease or wax on fruits or dirt on eggs.
Dewatering Free moisture must be completely removed after washing. Centrifugation is
generally used, although vibration screens and air blasts can also be used. The process should
remove at least the same amount of moisture that the product retained during processing. It
has been shown that removal of slightly more moisture (i.e., slight desiccation of the product)
favours longer post processing life. Some examples can be given to dewatering equipment:
Sorting and Gradin Dewatering shaker Drying centrifuges Sorting is defined as the separation
of the raw material into categories of different physical characteristics such as size, shape and

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colour. Grading is defined as the separation of the raw material into categories of different
quality. Sorting plays an important role in controlling the effectiveness of many food
processes. They are better suited to mechanised operations such as peeling, blanching, pitting
and coring. They are necessary in processes in which uniformity of heat transfer is critical
(sterilization, pasteurisation) and they are advantageous in processes in which uniformity of
heat transfer is desirable. Flatbed screens, drum screens, roller sorters, belt sorters, screw
sorters are used for size sorting.

EXAMPLE:

Roll sizer, it consists of a roller conveyor in which the gap between the rollers is arranged to
increase regularly from inlet to outlet end of the conveyor. The food remains on the conveyor
until it encounters a gap in the rollers through which it falls into a padded collection chute.
The roller pitch may be adjusted as required. The disc sorter, the cylinder sorter can be used
for shape sorting. The reflectance and transmittance characteristics of foods are important
indicators of their processing suitability. Reflectance properties are used to indicate: raw
material maturity (e.g. the colours of fruit and vegetables, meat, etc.), the presence of surface
defects (e.g. bruised fruits), the extent of processing (e.g. biscuits, breads) and so on.
Transmittance measurements of foods are used to determine their internal properties such as
ripeness or core defects in fruits. Photometric sorting embraces most of the electromagnetic
spectrum, ranging from gamma and X rays through ultra violet, visible light, infrared,
microwaves and radio frequencies to measurements at mains frequency.

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 PROCESSING OF MILLETS

Millet is a cereal crop plant belonging to the grass family, Graminae (FAO, 1972). The
term “millet" is used loosely to refer to several types of small seeded annual grasses (FAO and
ICRISAT, 1996), belonging to species under the five genera in the tribe Paniceae, namely
Panicum, Setaria, Echinochloa, Pennisetum and Paspalum, and one genus, Eleusine, in the
tribe Chlorideae (FAO, 1972).

Millets are small-seeded with different varieties such as pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum), finger millet (Eleusine coracana), kodo millet (Paspalum setaceum), proso millet
(Penicum miliaceum), foxtail millet (Setaria italic), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), and
barnyard millet (Echinochloa utilis). They are known as coarse cereals beside maize (Zea
mays), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), oats (Avenasativa), and barley (Hordeum vulgare) (Bouis
2000; Kaur and others 2012). The world total production of millet grains at last count was
762712 metric tons and the top producer was India with an annual production of 334500 tons
(43.85%) (FAO 2012).Millet is known as ragi and mandia in the Bastar region of
Chhattisgarh and offers both nutritional and livelihood security for human beings and also
feed security for diverse livestock populations in dryland regions of rural India (Pradhan and
others 2010).

Primary products
Traditional methods are usually applied to decorticate millet grains partially or
completely before further processing and consumption. Whole grains may as well be
directly dry-milled 9
to give a range of products: broken or cracked grains, grits, coarse meal and fine flour. The
flour thus obtained is used in the preparation of an extensive variety of simple to complex
food products. They can also be mixed with other flours to form composite flours for soft and
stiff porridges (Bangu et al., 2000).

Secondary and derived products

For human food, the millet grains are customarily milled before being cooked. Dry
milling embraces a wide range of technologies from simple grinding of the whole seed
between stones or in a pestle and mortar to the complex continuous system of
precision rollers. Common millet (proso) contains a comparatively high percentage of
indigestible fibre
because the seeds are enclosed in the hulls, and difficult to remove by conventional
milling processes (Matz, 1969 quoted by Hulse, et al., 1980).

Effects of Processing Technologies on the Nutritional Quality of Millet Grains

Related to improvement of nutritional characteristics, sensory properties, and
convenience, there are some processing technologies that are used in manufacturing of
food products. Several traditional household food processing and preparation methods can
also be used to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets. These
include thermal processing, mechanical processing, soaking, fermentation, and
germination/malting. These procedures aim to increase the physicochemical accessibility of
micronutrients, decrease the content of ant nutrients, such as phytates, or increase the content
of compounds that improve bioavailability (Hotz and Gibson 2007).

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Post-production Operations
1. Pre-Harvest Operations
One of the major pre-harvest operations is the field inspection to ensure uniform
ripening ofthe crop. If ripening is not uniform in the field, selective harvesting, may be done
to pick theripe heads that may start shattering, leaving the unripe heads for the next round of
harvesting.Pre-harvest inspection also ensures maintenance of quality of the crop.
2. Harvesting
Harvesting of many varieties of millets is done by removing the individual heads with
sickles or small hand knives. This is sometimes preceded by breaking the stems
(Aucland, 1921).Hulse et al., (1980) reported that harvesting of proso (common) millet is by
pulling up the entire plant by the roots as soon as the grain is ripe in order to avoid excessive
shattering, and is threshed immediately.
3. Transport
Transportation of millet starts immediately after harvesting within the farm. For
farmers whodo not prefer drying their crop in the field, they transport the millet in
bags to their homestead where the heads are spread out on the sun to dry. Trucks are the most
common means of transporting millet from the rural areas to urban centres
4. Threshing
Threshing is the removal of grain from harvested plant or plant part (Acland, 1921).
Threshing of millet is done manually by women and men. It entails beating the millet heads
with sticks or clubs repeatedly until almost all the grains are detached from the heads.
5. Drying
Millet grains harvested during rainy season may be left to dry in the field for up to
two weeks. Further drying if required is completed after threshing on mats laid down on the
sun, or plastic sheets.Mechanical drying may be employed to dry the millet grains, but this is
expensive, and therefore, must only be recommended where returns are economical.
6. Cleaning
Cleaning refers to separation of contaminants from produce, and complete removal of
the contaminants so that the cleaned produce is free from re-contamination. The
contaminants for millets may be sand (soil), small stones, leaves, shrivelled seeds, off-type
seeds, broken seeds, glumes, sticks, chaff, parts of stems, insects, animal hair, animal excreta
(e.g. rat and insect faeces) and more annoyingly, metal pieces.

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7. Packaging
After threshing, drying and cleaning, millets are usually bagged in to bags and sealed
ready for transportation to distant markets. Sometimes millet grains may be packed in
bags sewn from artificial polythene bags for either transportation or storage.
8. Storage
Most millets have excellent storage properties and can be kept for up to 4-5 years in
simple storage facilities such as traditional granaries. This is because the seeds are
protected from insect attack by the hard hull covering the endosperm, and because grain is
usually harvested and stored in dry weather conditions (FAO and ICRISAT, 1996). Thus,
although there may be large year to year variations in production, stock can be easily built up
over the years. Millets may be stored, after drying and threshing, as loose grain in bags or
loose containers (McFarlane et al., 1995 ). They are commonly left on the field, prior to
threshing, in stacks or piles of harvested plants. The detached heads may also be stored away
from the field, in exposed stack or in traditional storage containers. However, the essential
pre- requisites for storage of millets are the same as those for other grains.

Traditional dehulling equipment

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 Figure : Flowchart for traditional milling methods of millets into flour

Mechanical Processing Technologies

 Decortication
 Milling and sieving
Traditional and Bioprocess Technologies
 Germination or malting
 Fermentation and enzymatic hydrolyzation
 Popping or puffing
 Soaking and cooking
Food Manufacturing and Formulation Technologies
 Conversion into pure-millet food products
 Blending in composite flours and food products
 Fortification and supplementation

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 RICE PROCESSING AND BYPRODUCT UTILIZATION

INTRODUCTION

The objective of a rice milling system is to remove the husk and the bran layers from paddy
rice to produce whole white rice kernels that are sufficiently milled, free of impurities and
contain a minimum number of broken kernels. The milling yield and quality of rice is
dependent on the quality of the paddy, the milling equipment used and the skill of the mill
operator.

The Rice Grain

The rice grain has both physical and chemical characteristics.

Physical Structure

A rice grain is made up of an outside husk layer, a bran layer, and the endosperm. The husk
layer (lemma and palea) accounts for 20% of the weight of paddy and helps protect the grain
kernel from insect and fungal attack. When the husk is removed, the rice is called brown rice.
Brown rice contains the bran layer and the endosperm. The bran layer is made up of the
pericarp and testa, the aluerone layer and the embryo. The degree to which this bran layer is
removed is known as the milling degree. The desired amount of bran removed depends on the
country. In Japan, the aluerone layer is often not removed however in many other countries
all bran layers are removed to give very highly polished rice. The storage life of milled rice is
improved when all of the bran layers are removed.

Physical characteristics of paddy rice

Physical characteristic- Percentage

Paddy 100

Husk 20

Brown rice 80

Meal Pericarp and testa (5-6%)

Aluerone (1%)

Embryo (3%) 8-10

White rice 70-72

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Chemical Composition of Milled Rice

Rice at 12% moisture contains approximately 80% starch and 7% protein. (Currey, 1984)
Starch occurs in the endosperm as small many-sided granules while protein is present as
particles that lie between the starch granules. Rice grain also contains sugars, fat, dietary fiber
and minerals.

Chemical composition of rice and bran

Brown rice White rice Bran

Water (%) 13-14 13-14 13-14

Starch (%) 68-70 80 9

-amylose28-30 33 6

Protein (%) 6-8 6-7 14

Fat 3 1 20

Fiber2-3 0.5 25

Crude ash 1-1.5 0.5 9-10

Rice Milling

Rice Milling Rice milling is the process of removing the husk and bran layer to produce
white rice.Rice milling can be undertaken as:

•A one step milling process where the husk and the bran are removed in one pass and white
rice is produced directly from the paddy.

•A two-step process where the husk and the bran are removed separately, and brown rice is
produced as an intermediate product.

•A multistage process where rice passes through a number of different operations and
machines from paddy to white rice.

One pass milling

Pestle and mortar

Hand pounding of paddy in a mortar with a pestle is still practiced in some remote areas.
Pounding the paddy induces upward and downward forces on grain against grain that
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removes the husk and some bran layers. The pounding also results in a high percentage of
broken kernels. The final cleaning is done by winnowing and gravity separation by hand.

The steel single pass mill

The single pass rice mill is an adaptation of the "Engleberg" coffee huller. This type of mill is
still very popular in many of the poorer rice-growing countries and is widely used for custom
milling of household rice. It is also still popular for milling parboiled rice in Bangladesh and
many African countries. This mill is a steel friction type mill and uses very high pressure to
remove the hull and polish the grain.

This results in many broken kernels, a low white rice recovery of 50-55% and head rice
yields of less than 30% of the total milled rice. The fine brokens are often mixed in with the
bran and the ground rice hull and this is used for animal feed. The poor performance of the
Engleberg mill has led some governments to discourage its use and in many Asian countries,
the Engleberg mills can no longer be licensed to operate as service or commercial mills.

Two Stage Milling Compact

Mill Two stage mills are often called compact rice mills and in many countries have
superseded the Engleberg mill. The two-stage mill has separate hulling and polishing
processes. Rubber rollers remove the husk and the brown rice is then polished with a steel
friction whitener similar to the Engleberg. These mills have a capacity of between 0.5 to 1 ton
per hour paddy input and are often used for custom milling in the rural areas. The milling
performance of the compact rice mill is superior to the single pass Engleberg huller with
milling recoveries normally above 60%.

Multiple pass rice milling

Commercial Mill

The milling process in larger commercial mills combines a number of operations that
produces higher quality and higher yields of white rice from paddy or rough rice.

The process involves:

1. Pre-cleaning the paddy prior to milling

2. Removing the husk or outer layer from the paddy

3. Polishing or whiting the brown rice to remove the bran layer

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4. Separating the broken grains from the whole kernels

5. Bagging the milled rice

6. Managing the by-products.

Pre-cleaning

When paddy comes into the mill it contains foreign material such as straw, weed seeds, soil
and other inert material. If this is not removed prior to hulling the efficiency of the huller and
the milling recovery are reduced.

Most pre-cleaners separate three groups of materials:

•The first separation is done by scalping or removing the objects that are larger than the grain.
Either a flat oscillating screen or a rotary drum screen that allows the grain to pass through
but retains straw can do this.

•The second separation retains the grains but allows broken grains, small stones and weed
seeds to pass through. An air aspirator may also be incorporated to remove the dust and the
light empty grains The capacity of the paddy pre-cleaner is usually based on the capacity of
the rice mill. A pre-cleaner for a 3-ton/hr rice mill would normally have a 5 ton/hr cleaning
capacity.

Types of pre cleaners

Types of pre cleaners Grain pre-cleaners can be classified according to their cleaning
mechanism. These are:

1. Oscillating Sieve type

Oscillating sieve pre-cleaners are simple and often made locally. The machine consists of
two sieves of different sizes depending on the size and shape of the grain. The top sieve
has a slotted profile larger than the bottom and both screens can be changed to suit the
grain size or crop type.
2. Aspiration cum Oscillation Type
The aspirator grain cleaner removes lighter impurities such as dust, dirt, chaff and straw
by blowing or sucking air through the mass of falling grain and removing these light
impurities in the air stream. Impurities that are not removed by the air are then separated
from the grain using oscillating sieves. The sieving action of this machine is similar to
the sieve oscillation cleaner. Some cleaners are also equipped with magnets to remove

17
 ironic particles. Aspiration style cleaners can have either single or double action
aspiration 5 Rice Milling
3. Rotary Cleaner
This machine consists of one or two drums; each drum is fitted with mesh of different
sized hexagonal or square perforation and an oscillating sieve. Foreign matter larger than
the grain is removed as the paddy or rice passes through the drums. Paddy then flows
onto the oscillating sieve to separate heavier impurities such as stone.
There are two types of rotary cleaner: Single
drum with aspirator and oscillation sieve.
The single drum aspirator utilizes a single drum
to separate large, light and heavy
impurities. Lighter impurities are separated by suction aspiration and the oscillation
sieves separate heavier impurities such as sand. Double drums with aspirator. This
machine has two rotation drums with each drum having a different size hole on the wire
mesh. It utilizes an aspirator to separate light impurities. This machine is typically used
for cleaning freshly harvest paddy.

De- stoner with aspiration

This machine is the same as a single drum with aspiration and oscillating sieves but has an
additional special arrangement for separating stones that have the same physical dimensions
as paddy. Of particular importance is the direction of flow of the paddy compared to the
direction of movement of the stones.

Removing the husk

The husk layer is removed from the paddy by friction and the process is called either de-
husking or de-hulling.

De-husking was traditionally done using mortar and pestles but, in modern rice mills, it is
done by passing the paddy grains between two abrasive surfaces that are moving at different
speeds. After separating the husk and paddy, the husk is removed by suction (aspirated) and
then transported to a storage dump outside the milling plant. The percentage of paddy that is
de-hulled to produce brown rice during this process is called the hulling efficiency An
efficient husker will remove 90% of the husk in a single pass. After the husk has been
removed the brown rice goes to a paddy separator. The kernels that were not de-husked in the
first pass will be separated and then returned to the de-husker.

18
Types of Husking machines

1. Steel Huller
The steel huller removes the husks and whitens the rice in one pass. Paddy rice is fed into
the machine and passes between a revolving steel shaft and a cylindrical shaped mesh
screen. These machines are normally powered by a 15 to 20 hp engine and are very
simple to operate.They are relatively cheap.

Rice Milling Advantage

• Very compact

• Easy to operate

. • Low cost and easy to maintain.

• Can mill small amount of paddy for individual farmers.

• Low cost of milling (handling and conveying equipment is minimal).

Disadvantage

• Low milling efficiency.

• Produces high amount of cracked and broken rice.

• By-products - husk, bran and very small broken are often mixed .

2.Under runner disc sheller

The under-runner husker is very common in Asia. This machine has two steel discs, which
have an emery coating. The upper disc is stationary and fixed to the cast iron housing. Paddy
flows from a centrally located hopper between the abrasive surfaces of the revolving lower
disc and the stationary upper disc. Resistance between the emery surface on the discs and the
paddy grains removes the husk leaving the brown rice kernel. Brown rice and husks are then
discharged circumferentially over the revolving disc and exit through an outlet.

This machine is very economical to run, produces a moderate amount of cracked or broken
grain, and has a hulling efficiency of about 85-90%.

Advantage

19
• Capacity is higher than steel huller type.

• Cracked and broken grain is less than steel huller type.

• More power efficient than steel huller type.

• Easy to operate.

• Low operation cost.

• Machine is very durable.

• It is nearly comparable to rubber rolls huller

Disadvantage

• Machine is very heavy and requires a moderate size operating space.

• This process scratches the rice kernel.

• As the abrasive stone wears, sand and silicon dislodges and mixes with rice and bran.

• Rice recovery less than the rubber rolls huller.

• Huller efficiency in this machine is 85-90%

2. Rubber roller huller

The rubber-roller huller is the most efficient hulling machine. As the name suggests two
rubber rollers of the same diameter are operated at different speeds to remove the husk
from the paddy. One roller has a fixed position and the other is adjustable to meet the
desired clearance. The adjustable roller rotates slightly slower than the fixed roller.
Rubber-roll hullers have an aspirator in the base of the machine to separate the hulls from
the brown rice. The roll diameter varies from 150 to 250 mm and the roller width from 60
to 250 mm. The correct clearance is dependent on the varietal characteristics and the
width and length of paddy. This method of hulling can achieve hulling efficiencies of
85% to 90% with minimum broken or cracked grain. This type of machine is now widely
used in developed countries.
Rice Milling Advantage
• Reduce breakage of milled kernels.
• High hulling efficiency.

20
•By-products are free from sand and silicon.
•Bran also in higher quantities compared to disc huller
•Very compact in comparison to disc huller.
•Less vibration
Disadvantage
•Cost to
purchase
•Cost of rubber
rollers .

Paddy
separation
The output
from the huller
is a mixture of
paddy rice,
brown rice,
husk, broken
paddy,
and sometimes bran. The huller aspirator removes the lighter material such as husk, bran
and very small brokens. The remainder passes onto the paddy separator where the
unhulled paddy rice is separated from the brown rice. The amount of paddy present
depends on the efficiency of the husker, and should not be more 10%. Paddy separators
work by making use of the differences in specific gravity, buoyancy and size between
paddy and brown rice. Paddy rice has a lower specific gravity, higher buoyancy, and is
physically bigger, longer and wider than brown rice
There are two types of paddy separator –
1. Compartment Separator
The compartment type of paddy separator uses the difference in specific gravity and
the buoyancy to separate paddy and brown rice. When paddy and brown rice move
over an inclined plane, they move at different speeds depending on their specific
gravity, their shape and contact area, smoothness of inclined surface and the co-
efficient of sliding friction. Brown grains are smaller, heavier, rounder and smoother
and will slide faster than paddy grains. The processing capacity of the compartment
separator is dependent on the compartment area. For a 2-ton/hr capacity rice mill, a
45-compartment separator made up of 15 compartments on each of three decks is
used.
2. Tray Separator 21
The tray separator uses the differences in specific gravity, grain length and the co-
efficient of friction to separate paddy and brown rice. The oscillation and slope of the
 separator. Rice Milling Separation Principle gher than this are attempted the level of
grain breakages will se o the variety and degree of erbrasive or friction. vertical cone
whitener is very common in many Asian apply more pressure on the grain than an
abrasive Hulling Efficiency In principle, the huller can efficiently remove between 80
and 95% of the husk from the paddy in one pass. When setting up a rubber huller it is
normal to have 10% of the paddy returned for a second hulling.
Whitening or Polishing Process
White rice is produced from brown rice by removing the bran layer and the germ. The
bran layer is removed from the kernel by applying friction to the grain surface either by
rubbing the grains against an abrasive surface or against each other. The amount of bran
removed is normally between 8-10% of the total paddy weight but this will vary
according t whiteness required.
The process used to whiten brown rice can be classified as:
Abrasive:
In this process the grain is whitened by the abrasive action of the rice kernel passing
between a moving abrasive surface and stationary screen. The hard rough surface is
usually stone or a carborundum type material. The abrasive process applies less pressure
on the grain and is better suited for long grain varieties. Abrasive polishers can be either
vertical or horizontal in design. The countries.
Friction
In the friction whitener the grain kernels are forced against each other and a metal screen
by a steel-ribbed cylinder rotating inside a metal-plated cylinder.
The frictional forces created between individual rice grains and between the grains and
the metal screen surface remove the bran layer from the grain. Friction polishers are
always horizontal in design and whitener. The whitening process applies pressure to the
grain, which generates heat and causes cracking and breakage of some 9 Rice Milling
kernels. To reduce the number of broken grains and the grain temperature during the
whitening process, rice is normally passed through two to four whitening and polishing
machines connected in series.
Rice temperatures should not exceed 43-440 C during any process.
The arrangement of machines to process the rice during rice whitening is dependent on
the physical characteristics rice grains. Proper sequencing of the machines will help
reduce the amount of broken kernels during whitening and polishing.

22
Rice Mixing
A good rice mill will produce 50-60% head rice (whole kernels) 5- 10% large broken and
10-15% small broken kernels. Depending on the country’s standards, rice grades in the
market will contain from 5-25% broken kernels. If rice mixing is to be done properly a
volumetric mixer is necessary.

Mist Polishing
Mixing a fine mist of water with the dust retained on the whitened rice improves the
luster of the rice (polishes) without significantly reducing the milling yield. A friction
type-whitening machine, which delivers a fine mist of water during the final whitening
process, is used for “final” polishing before sale.

Rice Weighing
Rice is normally sold as 50kg sacks which must be accurately weighed and labeled.
While most rice mills use a manual, mechanical weighing system, very accurate and fast
electronic systems.

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 MICROENCAPSULATION OF FOOD PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION

Encapsulation is a process to entrap active agents within a carrier material and it is a useful
tool to improve delivery of bioactive molecules and living cells into foods. Materials used for
design of protective shell of encapsulates must be food-grade, biodegradable and able to form
a barrier between the internal phase and its surroundings. Among all materials, the most
widely used for encapsulation in food applications are polysaccharides. Proteins and lipids are
also appropriate for encapsulation. Spray drying is the most extensively applied encapsulation
technique in the food industry because it is flexible, continuous, but more important an
economical operation. Most of encapsulates are spray-dried ones, rest of them are prepared by
spray-chilling, freeze-drying, melt extrusion and melt injection. Molecular inclusion in
cyclodextrins and liposomal vesicles are more expensive technologies, and therefore, less
exploited. There are number of reasons why to employ an encapsulation technology and this
paper reviews some of them. For example, this technology may provide barriers between
sensitive bioactive materials and the environment, and thus, to allow taste and aroma
differentiation, mask bad tasting or smelling, stabilize food ingredients or increase their
bioavailability. One of the most important reasons for encapsulation of active ingredients is to
provide improved stability in final products and during processing. Another benefit of
encapsulation is less evaporation and degradation of volatile actives, such as aroma.
Furthermore, encapsulation is used to mask unpleasant feelings during eating, such as bitter
taste and astringency of polyphenols. Also, another goal of employing encapsulation is to
prevent reaction with other components in food products such as oxygen or water. In addition
to the above, encapsulation may be used to immobilize cells or enzymes in food processing
applications, such as fermentation process and metabolite production processes. There is an
increasing demand to find suitable solutions that provide high productivity and, at the same
time, satisfy an adequate quality of the final food products. This paper aims to provide a short
overview of commonly used processes to encapsulate food actives.

MATERIALS USED FOR ENCPSULATION

A lot of substances may be used to coat or encapsulate solids liquids, or gases of different
types and properties. However, regulations for food additives are more rigid than for e.g.
pharmaceuticals. Different compounds, widely accepted for drug encapsulation, have not
been approved for use in the food industry, because many of these substances have not been

24
certified for food applications as “generally recognized as safe” (GRAS) materials. Actually,
the whole food process should be designed in order to meet the safety requirements of
governmental agencies such as the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) or Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) in the USA . The most important criteria for selection of an
encapsulation material are functionality that encapsulate should provide to the final product,
potential restrictions for the coating material, concentration of encapsulates, type of release,
stability requirements and cost constrains. Materials used for design of protective shell of
encapsulates must be food-grade, biodegradable and able to form a barrier between the
internal phase and its surroundings. The majority of materials used for encapsulation in the
food sector are biomolecules. Except to be natural, materials have to provide maximal
protection of the active material against environmental conditions, to hold actives within
capsules structure during processing or storage under various conditions, not to react with the
encapsulated material, to have good rheological characteristics at high concentration if it is
needed and to have easy work ability during the encapsulation. Among all materials, the most
widely used for encapsulation in food applications are polysaccharides. Starch and their
derivates –

amylose,amylopectin, dextrins, maltodextrins, polydextrose, syrups and cellulose and their

derivatives are commonly used. Plant exudates and extracts – gum Arabic, gum tragacanth,
gum karaya, mesquite gum, galactomannans, pectins and soluble soybean polysaccharides are
employed, too. Subsequently, marine extracts such as carrageenans and alginate are also
present in foods. Microbial and animal polysaccharides like dextran, chitosan, xanthan and
gellan are also exploited. Apart from natural and modified polysaccharides, proteins and lipids
are also appropriate for encapsulation. Examples of the most common milk and whey

25
proteins are caseins, gelatine and gluten. Among lipid materials suitable for food applications
there are fatty acids and fatty alcohols, waxes (beeswax, carnauba wax, candellia wax),
glycerides and phospholipids. In addition to the above, other materials are employed such as
PVP, paraffin, shellac, inorganic materials . It is impossible to number all criteria to select a
proper material for encapsulation. For sure, the type of an active, and its characteristics, and
an application where the encapulates are going to be used for are first on the list. Except this,
cost constraint stays a key factor for choosing the most appropriate materials. No matter what
is the material in question, the conversion of the physico-chemical characteristics of the
materials will be the precondition for successful food product development. So, it is
prerequisite to study and analyse all properties of potential wall material in order to conclude
and predict its behaviour under conditions present in food formulations

Structures of microcapsules

Most microcapsules are small spheres with diameters ranging between a few micrometers
and a few millimeters. However, many of these microcapsules bear little resemblance to these
simple spheres. In fact, both the size and shape of formed micro particles depend on the
materials and methods used to prepare them. The different types of microcapsules and
microspheres are produced from a wide range of wall materials like monomers and/or
polymers (King, 1995; Shahidi and Han, 1993). Depending on the physicochemical properties
of the core, the wall composition and the microencapsulation technique used, different types
of particles can be obtained (Fig. 1): A simple sphere surrounded by a coating of uniform
thickness; A particle containing an irregular shape core; Several core particles embedded in a
continuous matrix of wall material; Several distinct cores within the same capsule and multi
walled microcapsules.

Microencapsulation Techniques

1. Spray Drying:
Spray drying is the most common microencapsulation technique used in food
industry. Spray drying technique for producing encapsulated flavouring was
discovered by A Boake Roberts in 1937, when acetone was accidently added to
tomato puree which helped him to maintain colour and flavour of tomato powder
during spray drying. Subsequently, spray drying has become the most important
commercial process for making dry flavourings. Vitamins, minerals, colorants, fat and
oil flavour, aroma compounds, oleoresins and enzymes have been encapsulated using

26
 this technique. oils, fats Baianu, (1991) Protein Gluten, casein, gelatin, Emulsion,
spray-drying Ono, (1980) albumin, peptides Ref: Goud and Park,method for
protecting materials and is most widely employed, particularly for flavours for which
specialized equipment is not required.

Common encapsulating wall materials used in spray drying

The most important step in encapsulation of any core material by spray drying is the selection
of suitable wall material, which should form a continuous thin film and should protect the
core material from deterioration. The material should be low in cost, should have mild taste
and should be stable during storage.The desired functional profile of encapsulating material
includes high solubility, effective emulsification, low viscosity at high level of solids, low
hygroscopicity, easy release of core material and efficient drying properties. (Lee et al., 2003)

a) Gum arabic (Acacia)

It is one of the oldest and traditional wall materials or carriers used in spray drying. It
is a natural exudate from the trunk and branches of leguminous plants of the family
Acacia. Although it is one of the most preferred wall materials, alternative carriers are
being used for dry flavouring and other core materials due to its low production
(300g/plant/year) and high cost.
b) Modified starches:
Chemically modified starches most closely reproduce the functional properties of
gum arabic. Natural starches virtually have no emulsifying property. Esterification
with cyclic dicarboxylic acid anhydride imparts emulsifying power to partially
hydrolysed starches. This technique is practiced on a commercial scale to have the
wall material tailor made. The modified starches are found to be superior to gum
acacia in emulsifying properties and in retention of volatile flavours during spray
drying (Varavinit, 2001). 93 c) Hydrolyzed starches: This is one of the most common
wall or carrier materials. The hydrolysed starches are available in dextrose equivalent
(DE) ranging from 2 to 36.5 and offer good protection against oxidation. These are
low in viscosity at high total solid contents. However, they lack in emulsifying
properties.

27
 FILTRATION TECHNOLOGY IN FOOD PROCESSING

INTRODUCTION

Widely recognized as the technology of choice for superior water and wastewater treatment,
membranes provide a physical barrier that effectively removes solids, viruses, bacteria and
other unwanted molecules. Different types of membranes are used for softening, disinfection,
organic removal, and desalination of water and wastewater and can be installed in compact,
automated, modular units. Membrane filtration units can also be installed in relatively small
facilities that blend into the surrounding area and can be fully automated to significantly
reduce the required amount of operator attention. Recent advances in technology have
significantly reduced the cost of membrane‐based systems. Installation costs are lower
because membrane systems don’t require large buildings or as much land as conventional
systems. Operating costs are reduced since today’s membranes produce more water and
remove more impurities while using less energy. In the United States, regulations such as the
Safe Drinking Water Act and the Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule have
had a significant impact on municipal water treatment. This, in addition to increasingly
stringent wastewater discharge regulations, has promoted dramatic growth in the
implementation of membrane technology

Membrane Separation Technology:

Membranes provide physical barriers that permit the passage of materials only up to a certain
size, shape or character. There are four crossflow, pressure‐driven membrane separation
processes currently employed for liquid/liquid and liquid/solid separation: ultrafiltration (UF),
reverse osmosis (RO), nanofiltration (NF), and microfiltration (MF). Membranes are
manufactured in a variety of configurations including hollow fiber, spiral, and tubular shapes.
Each configuration offers varying degrees of separation.

Ultrafiltration:

Ultrafiltration (UF) is a pressure‐driven process that removes emulsified oils, metal

hydroxides, colloids, emulsions, dispersed material, suspended solids, and other large
molecular weight materials from water. UF membranes are characterized by their molecular
weight cut‐off. The major opportunities for UF involve clarification of solutions containing
suspended solids, removal of viruses and bacteria or high concentrations of macromolecules.
These include oil/water separation, fruit juice clarification, milk and whey production and

28
processing, automotive electrocoat paint filtration, purification of pharmaceuticals, poly‐vinyl
alcohol and indigo recovery, potable water production, and secondary or tertiary wastewater
reuse.

Reverse Osmosis:

The membrane with the smallest pores is reverse osmosis (RO), which involves reversal of
the osmotic process of a solution in order to drive water away from dissolved molecules. RO
depends on ionic diffusion to effect the separation. A common application of RO is seawater
and brackish water desalination. RO is also used in many industrial processes including
cheese whey concentration, fruit juice concentration, ice‐making, and car wash water
reclamation, and wastewater volume reduction. In each of these examples, the goal is either to
produce a pure filtrate (typically water), reduce the volume of the wastewater for disposal or
retain the components of the feed stream as the product.

Nanofiltration:

Nanofiltration (NF) functions similarly to RO, but is generally targeted to remove only
divalent and larger ions. Monovalent ions such as sodium and chloride will pass through an
NF membrane, thus many of the uses of NF involve de‐salting of the process stream. An
example is the production of lactose from cheese whey; the NF process is designed to
concentrate the lactose molecules while passing salts – a procedure that purifies – and
concentrates – the lactose stream. In water treatment, NF membranes are used for hardness
removal (in place of water softeners), pesticide elimination and color reduction. Nanofiltration
can also be used to reclaim spent NaOH solutions. In this case, the permeate (filtrate) stream
is purified NaOH, allowing reuse many times over. Microfiltration: Microfiltration (MF) has
significant applications in simple dead‐end filtration for water filtration, sterile bottling of
fruit juices and wine, and aseptic uses in the pharmaceutical industry. A large portion of the
MF market has been captured by crossflow. The most common of these are clarification of
whole cell broths and purification processes in which macromolecules must be separated from
other large molecules, proteins and/or cell debris. Clarification of dextrose and highly‐colored
fruit juices employ MF extensively as well. There are also large markets for MF crossflow
filtration in wine production, milk/whey de‐fatting, and brewing. MF systems operate at
relatively low pressures and are configured based upon the application.

29
Membrane Bioreactor (MBR)

A membrane bioreactor is a biological process that combines secondary and tertiary

treatment using a membrane filtration process. MBR systems are growing in popularity for
virtually all wastewater treatment applications because they offer many advantages over
conventional wastewater treatment plants such as consistently high quality effluent with low
turbidity, low bacterial counts, low TSS and NTU, while using fewer chemicals than
conventional wastewater treatment plants. The filtrate quality, in many instances, is suitable
for feeding directly into an RO process. An additional advantage of an MBR system is its
compact footprint.

Increased Effluent Quality:

In an MBR, UF membrane modules are submerged in the activated sludge to combine the
biological step and the solid‐liquid separation into a single process. The membrane acts as a
barrier, which improves the effluent quality. An MBR system eliminates the secondary
clarifier and allows the activated sludge to be more concentrated.

Reduced System Footprint:

In an MBR system, the volume requirement for biological tanks is reduced, saving space and
construction costs. Overall, the MBR process reduces footprint significantly, by as much as 50
percent, compared to the combination of conventional wastewater treatment followed by sand
filtration or ultrafiltration.

Flexibility:

MBR systems feature flexible layout options, are easily expandable, have a compact
footprint, and can be configured to meet the unique effluent requirements of each site.

Range of Applications:

MBR systems are increasingly used for locations where water resources are scarce, reusable‐
quality effluent is desirable, space availability is limited, and/or stringent discharge standards
are in effect. These locations include small communities, housing developments, commercial
developments, mining camps, resorts, hotels, malls, schools, and golf courses, among others.
The MBR is also employed for industrial applications to recycle process water to reduce
wastewater disposal costs.

Hollow Fiber

30
Hollow fiber membranes are also based on UF technology. Depending on the application,
hollow fiber membranes can be highly practical and cost effective alternatives to conventional
chemical and physical separation processes.

Mode of Operation:

Hollow fiber cartridges operate with flows from outside‐to‐inside, or inside‐to‐ outside with
fluid flowing through the center and permeate passing through the fiber wall to the outside of
the membrane, a design that is highly flexible and easily handles large volumes for
circulation, dead‐ end, and single‐pass operations. Other operating techniques that can be
employed with hollow fiber membrane systems include back flushing with permeate and
retentate reverse flow.

Durable Construction:

Due to their structural integrity and construction, hollow fiber membranes can withstand
permeate back pressure, thus allowing flexibility in system design and operation.

High Efficiency: Hollow fiber membranes have a physical membrane barrier provides
consistent permeate quality. They offer a compact, cost‐effective solution for filtering large
volumes of liquids utilizing minimal space and energy. Hollow fiber membranes can be
backflushed to remove solids from the membrane inside surface, thus extending the time
between chemical cleaning cycles.

Flexibility: Hollow Fiber membranes are available in UF and MF technologies and come in
an array of diameters. Hollow Fiber membranes feature a high membrane packing density
resulting in systems with a small footprint. Systems can be configured to a range of flow
capacities.

Range of Applications: Hollow fiber membranes have been successfully employed in a wide
variety of applications including municipal water and wastewater treatment, industrial
biotechnology, and in the food, beverage, dairy, and wine industries.

31
Spirals

For feed waters with a high concentration of dissolved solids, such as seawater, membranes in
the spiral‐wound configuration are the optimal solution. Spiral membranes commonly
employ RO or NF technology.

Mode of Operation: Feed solutions enter one end of the element, flowing under pressure
through the membrane into permeate channels, spiral to the central core, and exit as permeate.

High Efficiency: Spiral elements are made from layers of flat sheet membranes and feed
separators wrapped around a hollow core. This configuration offers the highest membrane
packing area capability with the smallest footprint. Spiral elements are robust, energy
efficient, and economical to operate.

Flexibility: Spiral membranes are available in a variety of materials, diameters and lengths.
Spiral membranes reliably remove dissolved solids from a variety of source waters; generally
reverse osmosis and nanofiltration spiral membranes serve the water and wastewater market,
while ultrafiltration and microfiltration spiral membranes are used in the industrial and life
sciences markets.

Range of Applications: Spiral wound membranes have quickly become the most prevalent of
all the available membrane configurations. They excel at seawater desalination, brackish
water treatment, water softening, and organics removal. Sanitary spirals are widely used in
dairy, food, and pharmaceutical applications, allowing for high rejection without
compromising yield.

32
Tubular

While virtually any membrane design can be applied to water‐like liquids with low
concentrations of suspended solids, viscous streams and fluids with large amounts of solids
are best handled with tubular membranes, which are specifically designed for this purpose.

Mode of Operation: Tubular membranes operate in tangential, or crossflow, design where

process fluid is pumped along the membrane surface in a sweeping action. This design
maintains stable filtration rates for process streams with high concentrations of particles or
macromolecules such as cells, proteins and precipitates.

Construction: Tubular membranes have a rugged construction made of sturdy polymeric

materials, so they can easily process high suspended solids and concentrate product
proficiently and repeatedly to high end‐point concentration levels without plugging.

High Efficiency: Durable and long‐lasting, low‐energy tubular membrane configurations are
easy to operate, run in continuous, reproducible processing cycles, and offer optimal
productivity, high flux, and high recovery.

Flexibility: Tubular membranes are available in UF and MF technologies and come in an

array of diameters. They can be purchased as individual elements or in compact systems
covering a range of capacities.

Range of Applications: Tubular membranes are well suited for juice clarification, easily
removing suspended solids, colloidal haze particles, microorganisms, and undesirable
proteins without the need for diatomaceous earth. In tough industrial environments, tubular
membranes are ideal for difficult to treat wastewater contaminated with oil, grease, heavy
metals, and suspended solids. Tubular membranes operate successfully within a wide pH and
temperature range without plugging.

33
 INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

INTRODUCTION:

Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the intellect for which a

monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the
protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial
design rights and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and
literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, and designs can all be
protected as intellectual property.

While intellectual property law has evolved over centuries, it was not until the
19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th
century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world.

OBJECTIVES:

 Financial incentive

 Economic growth

 Morality

Financial incentive

These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they
have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual
property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs.

In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of
intellectual property to the U.S. economy is more than US$5 trillion and creates employment
for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered
similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP
has become a recognised asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of
business finance. However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are
millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only
being leveraged inadvertently".

34
Economic growth

The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of
intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The WIPO
Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws:

 One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in
their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations.

 The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the
dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would
contribute to economic and social development.

A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact
of IP systems on six Asian countries found "a positive correlation between the strengthening
of the IP system and subsequent economic growth."

Morality

According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, "everyone has the
right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary
or artistic production of which he is the author". Although the relationship between
intellectual property and human rights is a complex one,there are moral arguments for
intellectual property.

The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality
theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that
intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS:

Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks.

Patents

A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the owner the
right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an
invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention.
An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a
process and generally has to fulfil three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and
there needs to be an industrial applicability.

35
Copyright

A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited
time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or
"works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or
manner in which they are expressed.

Industrial design rights

An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right") protects the visual design of
objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape,
configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-
dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-
dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft.

Trademarks

A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes product or

services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.

INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY INFRINGEMENT

Violation of intellectual property rights, called "infringement" with respect to patents,

copyright, and trademarks, and "misappropriation" with respect to trade secrets, may be a
breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved,
jurisdiction, and the nature of the action.

Patent infringement

Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without

permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of
protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent. There is safe harbor in many
jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the
US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in
order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent
infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several
jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China,
France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).

36
Copyright infringement

Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to

make derivative works without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a
publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called
"piracy". While copyright is created the instance a work is fixed, generally the copyright
holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of
copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The ACTA trade agreement
signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not
entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and
fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to active police for
infringement.

Trademark infringement

Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or
confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services
which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries,
a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides
legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in
several jurisdictions, under criminal law.

37
 FOOD MICROBIOLGY-AN INTRODUCTION

Bacteria

Bacteria are the most important microorganisms to the food processor. Most are harmless,
many are highly beneficial, some indicate the probable presence of filth, disease organisms,
spoilage and a few cause disease. There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all are
single-celled and fall into three basic shapes: spherical, straight rods, and spiral rods. To see
them, you need a microscope that magnifies about 1000-fold. All bacteria reproduce by
dividing into two cells. The two cells then divide to become 4, 4 become 8, and so forth.
Under ideal conditions, this doubling may occur as frequently as every 15 minutes, so that
within 5 hours there will be more than a million cells from the original single cell. If there are
1000 original cells instead of a single one, there will be over 1 billion cells in 5 hours.

Yeasts and Molds

Yeasts are oval-shaped and slightly larger than bacteria. They reproduce most often by
budding. In budding each cell can produce several buds, or swellings, which break away to
form new, fully formed daughter cells.

Molds as found on bread, fruit, damp paper, or other surfaces are actually composed of
millions of microscopic cells joined together to form chains. The chains usually have
numerous branches, called hyphae. Molds can thrive in conditions too adverse for bacteria or
yeasts. They reproduce by spores that are frequently present as green or black masses on the
protruding hyphae.

Viruses

.The viruses are important to the food process in two respects:

1. As a bacteriophage of lactic or other fermentative bacteria. Bacteriophage infections of starter

cultures can interfere seriously with the manufacture of cheese, buttermilk, sauerkraut,
pickles, wine, beer, and other desirable fermentative products.
2. As disease transmitted by food to human beings. Although viruses require a live host cell and
cannot multiply in foods, they can remain viable and infectious for long periods of time, even
under highly adverse conditions, such as drying, freezing, and pasteurization.

Coliform Bacteria

The coliform bacteria are non-spore forming rods that occur in large numbers in human and
animal feces. They are normally present on raw animal products, such as meats, milk, and
eggs, and also occur naturally in soil, water, and surfaces of plants. They are heat sensitive
and die rapidly during blanching or pasteurizing. Large numbers of coliforms after a heat
process indicate an unacceptable degree of post-heating contamination or indicate time-
temperature abuse of the food sufficient to permit growth. High coliform levels warrant
investigations to determine the source of contamination or temperature mishandling.

38
Food Poisoning

Human illnesses caused by foodborne microorganisms are popularly referred to as food

poisoning. The common use of a single classification is due primarily to similarities of
symptoms of various food-related diseases (see Table 5). Apart from illness due to food
allergy or food sensitivity, foodborne illness may be divided into two major classes, food
infection and food intoxication. Food infection results when foods contaminated with
pathogenic, invasive, food poisoning bacteria are eaten. These bacteria then proliferate in the
human body and eventually cause illness. Food intoxication follows the ingestion of
preformed toxic substances which accumulate during the growth of certain bacterial types in
foods.

Foodborne Disease Organisms

Escherichia coli

A few of the E. Coli strains found in human feces are in themselves pathogenic, causing
infection and disease. These are called Enteropathogenic E. Coli or EEC. In one extensive
study of the feces of food handlers (Hal and Hause, 1966), 6.4% of the workers harbored the
EEC organisms as carriers.

Staphylococcus aureus

S. aureus, commonly referred to as “staph,” is normally present on the skin, the mucous
membranes, and in pimples and boils of human beings and other animals. It is nearly always
present in small numbers in raw meats and in foods handled extensively by human hands. The
food poisoning strains generally come from human sources. Pasteurizing or cooking destroys
the organism, but not its toxin. Foods contaminated by staph organisms can cause food
poisoning after the organisms have been destroyed by heat.

Salmonella

Salmonella infection, or salmonellosis, is almost always caused by eating contaminated food

or drink. Contamination originates from the intestinal tract of human beings or animals who
harbor Salmonella organisms. Most adults can resist infection from a few cells, but become ill
when ingesting millions. Infants, the aged, and the infirm are much more sensitive and can be
affected by a few Salmonella cells. After recovery, the victim may remain a carrier for a
period varying from a week to permanency.

Costridium botulinum

C. botulinum produces a rare but often fatal disease called botulism. It is caused by a
neurotoxin produced during growth in the absence of air. Except in the case of infantile
botulism the intact spores are harmless. Infants ingesting spores, usually from honey, have
developed symptoms of botulism. Botulism usually occurs after a food containing the
preformed toxin has been eaten, but sometimes the organism infects wounds, forming the
toxin in the muscle of the victim
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Clostridium perfringens

C. perfringens is a spore-forming organism which, like botulinum, grows only in the absence
of air. It grows best in meat or poultry dishes, stews, or gravies kept warm. Such foods meet
its exacting nutritional requirements and the warm holding temperature, up to 122°F,
encourages its growth. The spores themselves are harmless, but the vegetative cells, which
can grow to enormous numbers in these foods, form spores in the intestinal tract of the
victim. During the sporulation process, the remainder of the vegetative cell dissolves,
releasing the poison that causes illness.

Bacillus cereus

B. cereus is a spore-forming organism that grows in the presence of oxygen and is widely
distributed in most raw foods. Since the spores survive boiling for several minutes, they
remain viable in cooked foods in small numbers. The organism does not compete well with
other bacteria in raw foods, but in moist, cooked dishes held warm (up to 122°F), it grows to
millions per gram in a few hours.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus

V. parahaemolyticus is a non-spore forming, slightly curved rod, closely related to the

organism that causes cholera. It is widely distributed and grows in brackfish waters, estuarine
sediments, raw fish, and shellfish throughout the world. It competes well with spoilage
organisms at temperatures of 41°F or above. It occurs in greatest numbers in the summer
when higher temperatures engender rapid growth.

Listeria

Before the 1980’s most problems associated with diseases caused by Listeria were related to
cattle or sheep. This changed with food related outbreaks in Nova Scotia, Massachusetts,
California and Texas. As a result of its widespread distribution in the environment, its ability
to survive long periods of time under adverse conditions, and its ability to grow at
refrigeration temperatures, Listeria is now recognized as an important food borne pathogen.

Yersinia enterocolitica

Even though Yersinia enterocolitica is not a frequent cause of human infection in the U.S., it
is often involved in illness with very severe symptoms. Yersiniosis, infection caused by this
microorganism, occurs most commonly in the form of gastroenteritis. Children are most
severely affected. Symptoms of pseudo-appendicitis have resulted, in many unnecessary
appendectomies. Death is rare and recovery is generally complete in 1 – 2 days. Arthritis has
been identified as an infrequent but significant sequela of this infection..

Campylobacter jejuni

C. jejuni was first isolated from human diarrheal stools in 1971. Since, then it has continually
gained recognition as a disease causing organism in humans.
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 Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins are harmful byproducts from molds that grow on foods and feeds. They have
caused severe illness and death in animals for centuries. They first came to the attention of
modern scientists in 1960 when 100,000 turkey poults died in England after eating moldy
peanut meal from Africa and South America. The mycotoxins involved were later shown to be
aflatoxins, a group of closely related organic compounds that can cause acute disease and
death. Stimulated by these first discoveries and by research in antibiotics, investigators have
discovered dozens of mold strains which produce a wide variety of mycotoxins that affect
animals. There are now about 60 identified toxins.

Spoilage

The most prevalent microbiological problem facing the food industry is simple spoilage by
bacteria, yeasts, or molds that are not hazardous to health. Chilling slows spoilage; proper
freezing, drying, canning, and pickling arrest it completely. Chilled foods must be transported
to the consumer before spoilage microorganisms make them unfit for consumption. The
problems of spoilage in the other processes arise only upon departure from established
techniques. The incidence of product spoilage can be greatly reduced and shelf-life extended
by taking appropriate precautions.

Refrigerated Foods

The popularity of refrigerated/chilled foods is increasing at a surprising rate. Most of these

products are convenient to use and have a “close to fresh” image. Some of these products are
partially cooked or processed prior to chilling. This heat reduces the microbial population but
does not render it “commercially sterile.” Because of this, refrigerated foods have a limited
shelf-life. That is affected by temperature and customer abuse.

Refrigerated foods have been in our stores for many years. Products such as milk, cheese,
yogurt and other dairy products, cookie and biscuit doughs, eggs, salads and processed meats
are commonly found in the refrigerated section or deli. The optimum storage temperature is
33°F. or as close to freezing as possible. However, most refrigerated cases are holding near 45
or even 45°F. This temperature fluctuation reduces shelf-life of the products, and can lead to a
problem of public health significance.

Canned Foods

The shelf-life of canned foods results from the destruction of microorganisms capable of
growth within the container during normal handling and storage. To attain this optimum
situation, canners should:

 Follow the GMP regulations for low-acid foods.

 Reduce the spore level in the food by maintaining a sanitation program, particularly for
blanchers and elsewhere where thermophilic spore formers thrive, and by monitoring
41
 ingredients for spore forming bacteria. As a general rule, food with a high spore level requires
more retort time and/or temperature in the same or similar operations . A process approved by
a processing authority must be filed with FDA on each low-acid and acidified food sold in the
U.S. Assuming the same retort time and/or temperature, the incidence of spoilage will be
higher in the canned food with a high initial spore level when all other factors are the same .
 Follow good sanitation and good container handling techniques during the container cooling
and post-cooling period. It is also important to cool heat processed containers quickly to about
l00°F (38C) since thermophilic outgrowth may occur with low spore numbers if containers
are stacked or cased while hot.
 Maintain good seams on cans and tight lids on glass containers by regular control and testing.

Dry Foods
Dry foods do not spoil from microbial activity once they are adequately dry. Most foods
require natural or artificial drying before they become stable. Adding sugar or salt, as in
candied fruits or salted fish, accomplishes the same purpose since moisture becomes
unavailable for use by microorganisms. The appropriate term to express the availability of
water to microorganisms is water activity (aw).
Although microorganisms cannot grow on dry foods, those that survive the drying process
remain alive for prolonged periods. They quickly resume their activity upon rehydration.
Under adverse conditions of storage that permit water to enter the product, molds are usually
the first to grow because of their wider range of tolerance to low aw (Watson and McFarlane, 1948) and
they also have less competition from other organisms.

Fermented and Pickled Foods

Fermented and pickled foods owe their stability to the microbial development of organic
acids by lactic bacteria or the addition of such acids to the foods, especially in the presence of
a relatively high level of salt. Spoilage can occur either during the fermentation period or
upon storage of the final product. The fermentation can fail if bacteriophage attacks the starter
culture, if the temperature is unsuitable, or if the amount of fermentable carbohydrate is
inadequate.

To prevent spoilage during the fermentation period:

1. Add lactic bacteria as a starter. Keep the starter in pure culture to help eliminate
bacteriophage.
2. Add fermentable carbohydrate or organic acid.
3. Maintain the salt level high enough to inhibit spoilage bacteria and to permit the more salt-
tolerant lactics to grow.

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 FOOD WASTE MANAGEMENT
Food processing wastes are those end products of various food processing industries that have
not been recycled or used for other purposes. They are the non-product flows of raw materials
whose economic values ate less than the cost of collection and recovery for reuse; and
therefore discarded as wastes.

Figure: Food waste management pyramid

Successful food waste reprocessing involves (a) rendering recovered by-products suitable for
beneficial use, (b) promoting marketability to ensure profitable operating, (c) employing
reprocessing technology, and (d) creating an overall enterprise that is acceptable and
economically feasible.

In general wastes from the food processing industry have the following characteristics.

1. Large amounts of organic materials such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids

2. Varying amounts of suspended solids depending on the source
3. High biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) or chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Utilization of Selected Food Wastes
 Dairy industry
 Fruits and vegetables
 Citrus by-products
 Oil Industry

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  Meat industry
Factors Influencing the Generation of Wastes
 Commodity Product Style
 Raw Product Quality
 Harvest and Transport
 Plant Size and Age
 Processing Rate and Percent of Plant Capacity
 Preparation Procedures and Equipment
 Water Use

Food waste management practices

The deliberate and controlled collection, treatment and disposal of different wastes in order to
reduce its negative impacts on environment and society.

Food waste management – Good practices

1. Anaerobic digestion
2. Ozonisation
3. Thermophilic anaerobic digestion
4. Sequencing batch reaction
5. Electrodialasis
6. Wet oxidation
7. Incineration
8. Solid waste management
9. Pyrolosis
10. Vermicompost

44
Table: Examples of food waste and losses throughout the food supply chain

45
 FOOD COLOURANTS AND PIGMENTS
• A color additive is any dye, pigment or substance which when added or applied to a
food is capable (alone or through reactions with other substances) of imparting color.
1)To offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature extremes, moisture and storage
conditions
2) To correct natural variations in color
3) To enhance colors that occur naturally
4) To provide color to colorless foods
TYPES
• natural colours
• synthetic colours
• nature identical colours
• caramel colours
Pigments from Plant Sources
FLAVONOIDS
Anthocyanin
• most established food
colorants
• major source of
anthocyanins is the
grape skin
• found in a wide variety of edible plant materials - skin of red apples, plums, and
grapes, strawberries, red cabbage andblueberries
• Concentrated or spray-dried juices of cranberries, raspberries, and elderberries
• Extraction of anthocyanin generally involves the use of an alcoholic solvent
(methanol, ethanol, and n-butanol)
Chalcone
• chalcones are water-soluble pigments extracted from petals of
safflower (Carthamastinctorius).
• Red carthamin, safflor yellow A, and safflor yellow B
• chalcone color - insensitive to pH changes, light, and microbial degradation
• it is affected by heating and contact with metal-restricted to foodstuffs such as
noodles, yoghurts, and fruit juices
Carotenoids
• Found in plants (carrots, tomatoes, and46
capsicum), bacteria, fungi, algae, and animals.
 • Beta carotene -most abundant
carotenoid in nature
• major coloring principle in carrot
and as well as palm oil seed extracts.
• oil soluble and impart a yellow color
to foods
• applications in dairy products, cakes,
soup, and confectionery.
precursor of vitamin A - antioxidation properties -help in the prevention of cancer and
other diseases
Annatto
•an orange-yellow colored carotenoid
derived from the pericarp of the seeds
belonging to the shrub Bixaorellana
•stable to pH changes and exposure to
air, but moderately stable to heat
• unstable when exposed to strong
light
• precipitates in acidic
• mixture of two compounds, bixin
and norbixin.
• Bixin- mono-methyl ester of a
dicarboxylic carotenoid
Saffron
• earliest food additives
•Water soluble extract obtained from
the stigma of the flowers of Crocus sativus
• sensitive to pH changes and is
prone to oxidation.
• moderately resistant to heat
• saffron extract is made up of water-
soluble crocinand fat-soluble
crocetin
• The flavoring compounds impart a distinct spicy flavor, thus restricting the usage of
saffron extract as a food colorant
47

Other Carotenoid Pigments

 • lycopene is soluble in aqueous solution and to a certain extent in nonpolar solution.
• Beverages, confectionery, boiled sweets, bread, and cakes.
• Paprika extract - an orange-red oil-soluble extract obtained from the red pepper
Capsicum annum.
• The color is insensitive to light but stable at high temperature.
Betalains
• Betalains can be divided into two classes of pigments-betacyaninsand betaxanthin.
Betacyanin -red pigment that may be extracted from the red beetroot Beta vulgaris
Chlorophyll
• green pigment found in all green plants
• Chlorophylls a and b are the two main types of chlorophyll pigment
• Chlorophyll a- bluish green pigment
• Chlorophyll b- yellowish green
• chlorophyll pigments are usually extracted from dried plant materials using aqueous
solvents, such as chlorinated hydrocarbons and acetone
Miscellaneous Plant Pigments
• Turmeric is a fluorescent yellow colored extract obtained fromthe root of the curcuma
plant,Curcuma longa
• Traditional use- grinding the tuber into powder and adding it to the food as a spice
rather than as a coloring agent.
• The turmeric extract comprises three pigments: curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and
bisdemethoxycurcumin.
The major pigment is curcumin, which is insoluble in water.
•Paprika – deep red, sweet,pungentextract of mild
capsicum (capsicum annum)
• Riboflavin – B vitamins – natural
yelowcolourant in milk, butter and cheese.
• Caramel – dark brown liquid or solid – caramelization of carbohydrates (dextrose,
invert sugar, lactose, malt syrup, molasses, sucrose, …)
Soft drinks, baked goods, syrups, preserves, candies, canned meat foods.
Pigments from Microbial Sources
Monascus Pigments
• main source of the
Monascus pigments is the
fungus Monascuspurpureus 48
 • the traditional method of pigment production involves the growth of the fungus on
solid medium such as steamed rice.
The resulting mass is then dried and ground to powder to be used as a colorant
Algal Pigments
• biliprotein orphycobiliprotein - produced mainly by the red algae (Rhodophyta), blue-
green algae (Cyanophyta), and the cryptomonad algae (Cryptophyta).
Pigments from Animal and Insect Sources
Cochineal
• red colorant
• principal cochineal pigment that is
being used industrially is carminic
acid
• jams, syrups, preserves,
confectionery, and baked goods
Heme Pigments
• most abundant throughout the animal
kingdom
• associate with proteins forming complexes, such as the myoglobin in the muscle and
the hemoglobin in the blood
NATURE IDENTICAL COLOURS
• Identical synthetic counterparts of naturally occuring pigments.
• β – Carotene : margarine, shortening, butter, cheese, baked goods, confections, ice
cream, macaroni products, juice and beverages
• β – apo – 8’ – carotenal: juices, fruit drinks, soups, jams, jellies, gelatins, processed
cheese, margarin, salad dressings, fats and oils
• Canthaxanthin – tomato sauce, spaghetti sauce, fruit drinks, sausage products and
baked goods
• Titanium dioxide – confectionery panned goods, cheese and icings.
SYNTHETIC FOOD COLOURS
• grouped into five classes based upon general chemical structure
– monoazo (FD&C Yellow No. 6, FD&C Red No. 40, Citrus Red No. 2)
– pyrazolone (FD&C Yellow No.5, Orange B)
– triphenylmethane (FD&C Blue No. 1, FD&C Green No. 3)
– indigoid (FD&C Blue No. 2)
– xanthene (FD&C Red No. 3)
49
 VALUE ADDITION OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
In everyday usage, a vegetable is any part of a plant that is consumed. A fruit is a seed-
bearing structure in flowering plant. Fruits and vegetables provide an abundant and cheap
source of vitamins, minerals, and fibre.

Tropical fruits are now considered as an important item of commerce as they have gained
enormous market potential. Post-harvest losses of fruits and vegetables are more serious in
developing countries than those in well-developed countries.

PROCESSING
Processing is the best way of utilizing surplus production of fruits during seasonal gluts.

Advantages of processing:

• Helps in converting perishable fruits in to durable form.

• Fruits, which are very difficult to eat out of hand can be processed in to a range of
highly acceptable fruit product.
• Helps in reducing wastage.
• Value addition.

Methods of processing of fruits into products:

• Preservation by heat treatment.

• Asceptic packaging.
• Preservation of by removal of heat.
• Quick freezing.

50
 • Preservation by removal of moisture.
• Preservation by addition of chemicals.
• Minimal processing.

VALUE ADDITION PRODUCTS

I. JAMS, JELLIES, MARMALADES AND FRUIT CHEESES

Collectively known as preserves, these products are finding an increased importance in many
countries, particularly in the more affluent urban areas. Fruit is most commonly used as the
raw material, but some vegetables such as pumpkin can be used.The principles of
preservation involve heating to destroy enzymes and microorganisms, combined with a high
acidity and sugar content to prevent recontamination.

JAMS

This is a solid gel made from fruit pulp or juice, sugar, and pectin. It can be made from a
single fruit or from a combination, but in either ease the fruit content should be at least 40 per
cent.The total sugar content of jam should not be less than 68 per cent to prevent mould
growth after opening the jar.

JELLIES

These are crystal-clear jams, produced using filtered juice instead of fruit pulp.

MARMALADES

51
These are produced mainly from clear citrus juices and have fine shreds of peel suspended in
the gel. Commonly-used fruits include limes, grapefruits, lemons and oranges.The fruit
content should not be less than 20 per cent citrus fruit, and the sugar content is similar to jam.

FRUIT CHEESES

These are highly boiled jam-like mixtures that have a final sugar level of 75-85 per cent and
thus set in a solid block. They can be cut into bars or cubes, or further processed as
ingredients in confectionery or baked goods.

JUICE

Juice can be extracted in a number of ways:

· Steaming the fruit

· Reaming the fruit (for citrus fruit)
· Pressing
· Pulping, using purpose-made pulpers, blenders, or a pestle and mortar.

The starting material for the production of jellies is a clear juice. To achieve this, the extracted
juice must be strained using a muslin cloth bag. Additionally, sugar syrups should be strained
in order to remove any unwanted material.

Addition of ingredients and process control

52
As in all processing, it is necessary to ensure that the correct amounts of ingredients are
added, and that temperatures and other process conditions are standardized. This will ensure
that the product has constant quality time after time.

· A pH meter or pH papers for checking the acidity level (the optimum range is 3.0-3.3)

· A thermometer for temperature measurement

· Accurate scales for the measurement of small amounts of ingredients such as preservatives

· A refractometer for accurately assessing sugar content.

Filling and packaging

It is essential that the containers used are thoroughly washed and sterilized.

The preserve should be hot-filled into suitable containers which are then sealed with a lid.
The temperature of filling is important too hot, and the steam will condense on the inside of
the lid and drop down onto the surface of the preserve. This will dilute the sugar on the
surface and allow mould growth.

Filling can be achieved using jugs, simple funnels or semiautomatic pistol-fillers are
available. In all cases, the jars should be filled to the correct level, approximately 9/10ths full,
to assist the formation of a vacuum as the product cools.

The packaging is likely to be one of the main costs involved in production. Ideally, glass jars
should be used, with new metal lids. Alternatives include plastic pouches/sachets. Technical
advice should be sought if these packs are being considered.

II. CHUTTNEY,PICKLES AND SAUCES

These products are popular in some regions where they are used as accompaniments to meals.
There are hundreds of varieties in existence and they can be made from a wide range of fruits
and vegetables.

The basic principle of preservation for all of these products is the use of acetic acid (vinegar).
Acetic acid preserves the product by making the environment acidic, and inhibits the growth
of spoilage and food-poisoning micro-organisms. Other ingredients such as salt and sugar add
to the preservative effect.

53
CHUTNEY

These are jam-like mixtures which have added vinegar and spices. The high sugar content
exerts a preservative effect, and a high level of vinegar addition is not always needed. These
products are hot-filled.

PICKLES

Pickles can be either fermented or unfermented, sweet or sour, and can be made from either
whole or chopped fruit.

SAUCES

These are thick liquids made from pulped fruit and/or vegetables, with the addition of salt,
sugar, and vinegar. They require pasteurization and are filled while hot.

Addition of ingredients

To ensure that the product has a long shelf-life, it is necessary to balance the sugar
concentration and acidity. To do this it is likely that the following pieces of equipment will be
necessary:

· pH meter

· Brine meter

· Refractometer.

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Pasteurization

As an additional safety measure, it is common to boil the vinegar mixture, add it to the
vegetables, and fill the product into the jars while it is still hot. In this way the hot mixture
will form a partial vacuum in the jar and prevent recontamination.

Sauces can be pasteurized before filling using a stainless steel pan or a steam jacketed pan,
depending on the rate of production. Alternatively, pasteurization can take place after filling
by placing the filled containers with the lids loosely on in a pan of boiling water and the
water level around the shoulder of the jar.

Filling and packaging

It is essential that the containers used are thoroughly washed and sterilized.

Glass jars are the most commonly-used packaging material. Pickles may also be packed in
small quantities in polythene pouches. These simple pouches are sealed with a powered bar-
sealer. To avoid seepage, it is suggested that a double pouch be used.

III. DRIED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

Drying removes water from the surface of the food by the combined effects of air flow, air
temperature, and air humidity. The relationship between the three is important if drying is to
be successful. When the moisture content is lowered below a certain level, micro-organisms
cannot grow, and the produce is preserved.

In humid climates, dried products must be packaged well in order to prevent moisture uptake
and protect against spoilage.

55
Air-dried products

These are the most common type of dried fruit and vegetables. Some products may be
blanched or sulphured/sulphated to protect the natural colour and aid preservation. Dried fruit
pulp is often named 'fruit leather'.

Dried and fried products

These are products which are partly dried, and then deep-fried, to produce a snack food.
Examples include banana chips and Bombay mix.

Osmotically dried fruits

These are fruits which are soaked in hot concentrated sugar syrups to extract some of the
water prior to drying.

PROCESSING

During drying, many fruits and vegetables experience some changes in colour. These can be
lessened by carrying out some simple processing stages prior to drying (for example,
blanching, sulphuring, and sulphating).

Blanching

Blanching is a short heating treatment in water or steam, and is often a necessary processing
stage. It has many functions, but essentially it destroys enzymes which are responsible for
causing browning, and reduces the total number of microorganisms in the food.

Sulphuring/sulphating

With some dried products, the use of chemical preservatives will improve the colour and
increase the shelf-life.

Sulphuring is more commonly used for fruits, and sulphating for vegetables. Sulphuring is
achieved by burning sulphur in a sulphur cabinet. This can be made from locally available
materials

Sulphating for vegetables.Sulphating involves the use of sulphite salts, such as sodium
sulphite or sodium met bisulphite. They may be either added to the blanching water or more
commonly used by soaking the food in a solution of the salts.

PACKAGING

56
Traditional packaging materials such as baskets, jute sacks, and wooden boxes have long been
established for packaging dried foods such as fish and vegetables.

Boxes are used to prevent crushing of dried foods, and in humid climates, moisture-proof
flexible films can be used.Some semi-moist foods such as osmotically dried fruits have
special needs to prevent the reabsorption of waterLow-density polyethylene is a moderately
good moisture barrier and cheaper than other films. It can be easily sealed using a powered
bar sealer.

Flexible materials may be used as the sole component of a package, but for most foods, a
sturdy outer container is also needed to prevent crushing or to exclude light.

OBJECTIVES

We got knowledge about

 The need for processing of fruits and vegetables

 Processing techniques of fruits and vegetables.
 Handling of fruits and vegetables.
 Preparation of value added products from fruits and vegetables.
 Packaging methods of value added products of fruits and vegetables.

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 DRYING TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION:

Drying is a mass transfer process consisting of the removal of water or another

solvent by evaporation from a solid, semi-solid or liquid. This process is often used as a final
production step before selling or packaging products. To be considered "dried", the final
product must be solid, in the form of a continuous sheet (e.g., paper), long pieces (e.g.,
wood), particles (e.g., cereal grains or corn flakes) or powder (e.g., sand, salt, washing
powder, milk powder). A source of heat and an agent to remove the vapor produced by the
process are often involved. In bioproducts like food, grains, and pharmaceuticals like
vaccines, the solvent to be removed is almost invariably water.

MECHANISM:

In some products having a relatively high initial moisture content, an initial

linear reduction of the average product moisture content as a function of time may be
observed for a limited time, often known as a "constant drying rate period". Usually, in this
period, it is surface moisture outside individual particles that is being removed. The drying
rate during this period is mostly dependent on the rate of heat transfer to the material being
dried. Therefore, the maximum achievable drying rate is considered to be heat-transfer
limited. If drying is continued, the slope of the curve, the drying rate, becomes less steep
(falling rate period) and eventually tends to nearly horizontal at very long times. The product
moisture content is then constant at the "equilibrium moisture content", where it is, in
practice, in equilibrium with the dehydrating medium. In the falling-rate period, water
migration from the product interior to the surface is mostly by molecular diffusion, i,e. the
water flux is proportional to the moisture content gradient. This means that water moves from
zones with higher moisture content to zones with lower values, a phenomenon explained by
the second law of thermodynamics.If water removal is considerable, the products usually
undergo shrinkage and deformation, except in a well-designed freeze-drying process. The
drying rate in the falling-rate period is controlled by the rate of removal of moisture or
solvent from the interior of the solid being dried and is referred to as being "mass-transfer
limited". This is widely noticed in hygroscopic products such as fruits and vegetables, where
drying occurs in the falling rate period with the constant drying rate period said to be
negligible.

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METHODS OF DRYING:

The following are some general methods of drying:

 Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the driving
force for heat transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further
increasing the driving force for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls,
the solids heat up and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the
interior of the solid to the surface. However, product quality considerations limit the
applicable rise to air temperature. Excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate
the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust formation or
"case hardening", which is usually undesirable. Spray drying belongs in this category.
 Indirect or contact drying (heating through a hot wall), as drum drying, vacuum drying.
Again, higher wall temperatures will speed up drying but this is limited by product
degradation or case-hardening. Drum drying belongs in this category.
 Dielectric drying (radiofrequency or microwaves being absorbed inside the material) is
the focus of intense research nowadays. It may be used to assist air drying or vacuum
drying. Researchers have found that microwave finish drying speeds up the otherwise
very low drying rate at the end of the classical drying methods.
 Freeze drying or lyophilization is a drying method where the solvent is frozen prior to
drying and is then sublimed, i.e., passed to the gas phase directly from the solid phase,
below the melting point of the solvent. It is increasingly applied to dry foods, beyond its
already classical pharmaceutical or medical applications. It keeps biological properties of
proteins, and retains vitamins and bioactive compounds. Pressure can be reduced by a
high vacuum pump (though freeze drying at atmospheric pressure is possible in dry air).
If using a vacuum pump, the vapor produced by sublimation is removed from the system
by converting it into ice in a condenser, operating at very low temperatures, outside the
freeze drying chamber.
 Supercritical drying (superheated steam drying) involves steam drying of products
containing water. This process is feasible because water in the product is boiled off, and
joined with the drying medium, increasing its flow. It is usually employed in closed
circuit and allows a proportion of latent heat to be recovered by recompression, a feature
which is not possible with conventional air drying, for instance. The process has potential
for use in foods if carried out at reduced pressure, to lower the boiling point.

59
 Natural air drying takes place when materials are dried with unheated forced air, taking
advantage of its natural drying potential. The process is slow and weather-dependent, so a
wise strategy "fan off-fan on" must be devised considering the following conditions: Air
temperature, relative humidity and moisture content and temperature of the material
being dried. Grains are increasingly dried with this technique, and the total time
(including fan off and on periods) may last from one week to various months, if a winter
rest can be tolerated in cold areas.
APPLICATIONS IN FOOD PRODUCTS:

Foods are dried to inhibit microbial development and quality decay. However, the extent of
drying depends on product end-use. Cereals and oilseeds are dried after harvest to the
moisture content that allows microbial stability during storage. Vegetables are blanched
before drying to avoid rapid darkening, and drying is not only carried out to inhibit microbial
growth, but also to avoid browning during storage. Concerning dried fruits, the reduction of
moisture acts in combination with its acid and sugar contents to provide protection against
microbial growth. Products such as milk powder must be dried to very low moisture contents
in order to ensure flowability and avoid caking. This moisture is lower than that required to
ensure inhibition to microbial development. Other products as crackers are dried beyond the
microbial growth threshold to confer a crispy texture, which is liked by consumers.

60
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Research

Research in simple terms refers to search for knowledge. It is a scientific and systematic
search for information on a particular topic or issue. It is also known as the art of scientific
investigation. Several social scientists have defined research in different ways.
In the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, D. Slesinger and M. Stephension (1930) defined
research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing
to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of
theory or in the practice of an art”.

Objectives of Research
The research objectives may be broadly grouped as follows:
1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research
studies);
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation
(i.e., descriptive research studies);
3. To analyse the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research
studies); and
4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables.

Types of Research:

1. Descriptive Versus Analytical

Descriptive research consists of surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different types. The
main objective of descriptive research is describing the state of affairs as it prevails at the
time of study. The term ‘ex post facto research’ is quite often used for descriptive research
studies in social sciences and business research. The most distinguishing feature of this
method is that the researcher has no control over the variables here

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2. Applied Versus Fundamental
Research can also be applied or fundamental in nature. An attempt to find a solution to an
immediate problem encountered by a firm, an industry, a business organisation, or the society
is known as applied research. Researchers engaged in such researches aim at drawing certain
conclusions confronting a concrete social or business problem.
On the other hand, fundamental research mainly concerns generalizations and formulation of
a theory. In other words, “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or
‘basic’ research” (Young in Kothari, 1988)..

3. Quantitative Versus Qualitative

Quantitative research relates to aspects that can be quantified or can be expressed in terms of
quantity. It involves the measurement of quantity or amount. On the other hand, Qualitative
research is concerned with qualitative phenomena, or more specifically, the aspects related to
or involving quality or kind. For example, an important type of qualitative research is
‘Motivation Research’, which investigates into the reasons for certain human behaviour.

4. Conceptual Versus Empirical

The research related to some abstract idea or theory is known as Conceptual Research.
Generally, philosophers and thinkers use it for developing new concepts or for reinterpreting
the existing ones. Empirical Research, on the other hand, exclusively relies on the observation
or experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such research is data
based, which often comes up with conclusions that can be verified through experiments or
observation. Empirical research is also known as experimental type of research, in which it is
important to first collect the facts and their sources, and actively take steps to stimulate the
production of desired information

Qualities of a Researcher
1. First of all, the nature of a researcher must be of the temperament that vibrates in
unison with the theme which he is searching.
2. A researcher must possess an alert mind. Nature is constantly changing and revealing
itself through various ways.
3. Scientific enquiry is pre-eminently an intellectual effort. It requires the moral quality
of courage, which reflects the courage of a steadfast endurance.

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In order to cultivate the afore-mentioned three qualities of a researcher, a fourth one may be
added. This is the quality of making statements cautiously.
Research Process
The following are the steps that provide useful procedural guidelines regarding the conduct of
research:
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalization and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results.

Concepts Relating To Research Design

1. Dependent and Independent Variables
The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known
as ‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be
expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms,
they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable,
whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable
depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a dependent or
endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are
known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
2. Extraneous Variables
The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect
the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables.
3. Control
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of
extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the

63
study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term
‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

4. Confounded Relationship
The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded
by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.
5. Research Hypothesis
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it
is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which
relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis
must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to be
objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research
When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis-
testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or non-
experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known
as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the independent
18 variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research’.
7. Experimental and Control Groups

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research,

it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new
or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group.
8. Treatments

Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups are
subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular earnings
and those with no regular earnings.
9. Experiment

Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating to a
given research problem.
10. Experimental Unit(s)

Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which
different treatments are applied.

64
 BANANA RIPENING

RIPENING-Meaning:

Ripening stage comes only after maturity. During this process carbohydrates are degraded
and sugar accumulate until typical sugar ratio natural for a particular variety is established. In
addition to this typical flavor and characteristics colour also develops.

 To most people will confuse“ Mature” and “Ripe” when

describing fruit.

 In post harvest physiology we consider “Mature” and “Ripe” as distinct terms for
different stages of fruit development.

CHANGES DURING RIPENING:

Ripening makes following changes in fruits:

 Total solids increases.

 Vitamin – c decreases.

 Fibre content remains more or less same.

 Flesh colour change.

 Outer skin colour change.

 Flavour develop.

METHODS OF RIPENING:

There are mainly four popular methods of ripening:

 By calcium carbide (masala).

 By smoking.

 By etheral (plant harmone)

Common feature responsible in ripening is concentration of ethylene gas which induce

into the fruit and fruit start ripening.

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 Mostly the fruits like banana, mango, papaya and sapota required artificial ripening.

CLIMATRIC AND NON-CLIMATRIC FRUITS:

FRUITS WHICH CAN ALSO RIPE AFTER THE HARVEST( Climacteric

Fruits)

Avocado, Banana, Pear, Apple, Apricot, Gooseberry,

Fig, Mango, Muskmelon, Water melon, Papaya,

Passion fruit, Peach, Plum.

FRUITS WHICH CAN NOT RIPE AFTER

HARVEST (Non-climacteric Fruits)

Cherry, Grapes, Lemon, Orange,

Sweet orange, Strawberries

BANANA RIPENING PROCESS:

 Field selection
 Harvesting
 Dehanding
 Latex Removal
 Washing
 Fungicidal treatment
 Grading and Sorting
 Packing
 Loading
 Arrival at terminal market
 Clearance by security
 Unloading
 Sampling
 Palletisation

 Quality and weight inspection

 Weighment

 Shifting to ripening chamber 66

  Cover with tarpaulin

 Gassing

 Programming

 Removal of Ripened Banana from the chamber

BANANA COLOUR CHART:

67
 FOOD FERMENTATION TECHNOLOGY AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION:

The production and consumption of fermented food date back to many thousand years with
the evidence of fermentation of barley in beer. It is an age-old process in food biotechnology.
Fermented foods are the ones that undergo microbial or enzymatic action in order to produce
significant modifications in the food by biochemical changes. In fermentation organic
substrates mostly carbohydrates are oxidized and act as an electron acceptor. In food
processing, carbohydrates are converted to alcohol, lactic acid, carbon dioxide (CO2) or
organic acids with the help of microbial organisms such as bacteria, yeast etc. in anaerobic
conditions. Processes involving the production of ethanol by yeast or lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) producing organic acids are included in food fermentation.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF FOOD FERMENTATIONS:

Fermentation can occur spontaneously or can be induced. There are different types of
fermentation used in food processing. Food fermentations can be classified either based upon
categories, classes or commodities. Some examples of food fermentations are as follows:

Lactic acid Fermentation

In lactic acid fermentations sugars are transformed to lactic acid by lactic acid organisms
such as Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus bacteria. Lactic acid is the most important
compound result from this reaction. Lactic acid producing bacteria are most significant
bacteria used in food fermentation and production. Sour milk is one of the most ancient lactic
acid fermented food in which the lactic acid bacteria will convert the milk sugar known as
lactose to lactic acid resulting in sour or fermented milk. Dairy products for example yogurt,
cheese, butter and sour milk are also produced.

Alcoholic Fermentation

This involves the production of ethanol mostly by yeast or yeast like molds such as
Amylomyces Rouxii. Alcoholic fermentation usually results in the production of beverages
such as wine, beer vodka etc. and rising of bread dough. The substrates used for fermentation
include honey, cereal grains, sap of palm, fruit juices, grain malt, that contain sugars that can
be fermented and are converted to ethanol by yeast. During the process equal amount of

68
carbon dioxide (CO2) is also produced as a side product and this process is carried out under
anaerobic conditions.

Solid state fermentation

It is a fermentation performed on a solid substrate acting both as support and nutrient source
for the microorganism when there is no free flowing liquid. SSF results in biomolecule
manufacture utilized in food. These biomolecules are metabolites which are generated by
microorganisms such as yeast or bacteria. This is an ancient process and different fungi are
used in food production.

IMPORTANCE OF FERMENTATION IN FOOD TECHNOLOGY:

Fermentation gives physical and nutritional benefits to the food. Fermentation plays
following key roles in food processing

Flavor Enhancement

Fermentation enhances the aroma and flavor of food. The organoleptic properties of
fermented food make them preferable as compared to unfermented food products. The flavor
of fermented food products is greatly influenced by acid fermentation as it produces lactic
acid thus resulting in lowering of pH causing sourness in food. During fermentation,
metabolism of sugar produces acid or alcohol thus decreasing sweetness.

Nutritional Quality

Many food products have low nutritional value such as cereals but it has been shown
that lactic acid fermentation enhances the nutrient content and digestive property of
different foods. The quantity and quality of proteins and vitamins increases on the other hand
antinutritional agents decreases after fermentation.

Preservative Properties

The preservative quality in food and beverages is due to antimicrobial metabolites formed
during fermentation. These metabolites include different organic acids such as acetic acid and
propionic acid. Lactic acid bacteria inhibit the growth of pathogenic organisms through acid
production which decreases the pH (below 4) during fermentation thus protecting the food
from spoilage and poisoning.

Antibiotic Activities

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Hydrogen peroxide and bacteriocins produced during fermentation are inhibitory for other
bacterial growth. Some compounds produced after acid fermentation has antitumor properties.
Gastrointestinal infections such as diarrhea are caused due to changes in the local flora of
gastrointestinal tract by the evading pathogen.

PRODUCTS DEVELOPED:

Different types of food are fermented and used daily in diet. Some examples of these foods
are as follows:
Dairy products
Milk fermentation and the dairy products manufactured in the process are extremely
important for human beings. Dairy products like yoghurt, kefir, cheese, butter and sour milk
are fermented. Fermented milk products are important source of probiotoics.

Beverages

The process of fermentation for the production of beverages has been used since old times.
Fermented beverages are of two types:

 Wines produced by the fermentation of fruit juices having fermentable sugar

 Beers produces from the products containing starch which undergoes enzymatic
splitting, malting and mashing so that the sugar become available to microorganism
for fermentation.

Meat Products

Meat is consumed worldwide however is greatly susceptible to contamination by pathogens.

Therefore it is necessary to preserve meat and maintain its stability. This is achieved by meat
fermentation. Using lactic acid bacteria (LAB) for the fermentation of meat sausages preserve
the meat and protect it from spoilage.

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 OZONE APPLICATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

Ozone, first discovered in 1840 (Schonbein), began being utilized as a disinfection

agent in the production of potable water in France in the early 1900.s. The majority of early
development was limited to Europe where it became more widely used in drinking water
treatment. The potential utility of ozone to the food industry lies in the fact that ozone is 52%
stronger than chlorine and has been shown to be effective over a much wider spectrum of
microorganisms than chlorine and other disinfectants.
Ozone is effective killing microorganisms through oxidation of their cell membranes
and most of the pathogenic, foods borne microbes are susceptible to this oxidizing effect.

Ozone Advantages
1. the most powerful oxidizer available
2. environmentally friendly
3. no chemical storage required
4. three-thousand times more germicidal than chlorine
5. instant pathogen destruction
6. no harmful chemical residual.

Ozone in the Food Industry

Because ozone is a safe, powerful disinfectant, it can be used to control biological
growth of unwanted organisms in products and equipment used in the food processing
industries. Ozone is particularly suited to the food industry because of its ability to disinfect
microorganisms without adding chemical by-products to the food being treated, or to the food
processing water or atmosphere in which food are stored.

Ozone Applications for Food Products and Processing

7. Washing fruits and vegetables
8. Meat and Poultry Production and Processing
9. Seafood Processing and Aquaculture
10. Food Storage
11. Pest Management
12. Beverage production

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Image of ozone processed food

Objectives Food Processing Process & Storage Treatment Objectives

Three Primary objectives can be identified in treatment of food

Treatment of food for any application, whether for additional processing or direct
distribution to consumers, has three primary objectives for consumers:
1. Sanitisation
Food for human consumption must be free of pathogenic organisms. Contamination
can occur from the Harvesting Stage, during transportation, during processing through
water, equipment or the human element or even by cross contamination.

2. Stop spoilage or over ripening

Food industry is Global and hence it is practically impossible to reach the food to the
Consumers across the world in an unspoiled manner , ripe or nearly ripe. The customer
Would like to see the food fresh and I an undamaged condition. It must be free from
bacterial or fungal contamination, free of foul odor and ,taste .These standards alone will
Provide consumer satisfaction.

3. Remove contaminants.
Fungicides, pesticides used during farming can contaminate the surfaces of the food
and this can be potentially dangerous .Of late more consideration has been give to this factor
.Removal or destruction of these contaminants is of prime most importance.

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Extended Benefits of Ozone
1. Higher levels of ozone can be used before altering the taste or appearance of the
produce.
2. Ozone improves taste and appearance over the use of chlorination alone: Better
Quality Produce
3. Ozone lowers counts of spoilage microorganisms in wash water and on produce
surface: Longer Shelf Life
4. Ozone keeps wash water cleaner longer: Less Water Usage
5. An ozone treatment is capable of destroying pesticides and chemical residues in wash
water and on produce.
6. Eliminate chlorine from a process: No THM's or other chlorinated by-products.

73
 RICE QUALITY TESTING

The Rice Grain

The rice grain has both physical and chemical characteristics.

Physical Structure

A rice grain is made up of an outside husk layer, a bran layer, and the endosperm, The husk
layer (lemma and palea) accounts for 20% of the weight of paddy and helps protect the grain
kernel from insect and fungal attack. When the husk is removed, the rice is called brown rice.
Brown rice contains the bran layer and the endosperm. The bran layer is made up of the
pericarp and testa, the aluerone layer and the embryo. The degree to which this bran layer is
removed is known as the milling degree. The desired amount of bran removed depends on the
country. In Japan, the aluerone layer is often not removed however in many other countries
all bran layers are removed to give very highly polished rice. The storage life of milled rice is
improved when all of the bran layers are removed.

Table: Physical characteristics of paddy rice

Chemical Composition of Milled Rice

Rice at 12% moisture contains approximately 80% starch and 7% protein. (Currey, 1984)
Starch occurs in the endosperm as small many-sided granules while protein is present as
particles that lie between the starch granules. Rice grain also contains sugars, fat, dietary fiber
and minerals.

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Table: Chemical composition of rice and bran

1. Determination of Size

Screw Guage Method: The screw guage was adjusted and the zero error was found out grain
was gripped vertically and horizontally, in the screw guage for the determination of length
and breadth respectively. Pitch scale and head scale reading was noted and the respective zero
error correction were noted.
Determination of Bulk Density
The weight of empty 50 ml volumetric flask was noted. The flask was filled with grains up to
the mark. The weight of the flask with the grain was noted. Oil was poured into the
volumetric flask to fill the inner space between the grains. The weight of the flask with grains
and oil was noted and the bulk density was calculated.

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2. Analysis
Moisture Content Percentage
Moisture content (MC) is the weight of water contained in paddy expressed in percentage.
Moisture content is measured using oven method. The oven is set up at 130oc then the three
varieties of paddy is weighed and placed inside the oven. Then the final weight of the sample
is measured after 16 hours.

𝑀𝐶𝑑 𝑏 = moisture content dry

basis mi = initial weight
mf = final weight
Dockage in paddy
The light foreign matter, stones, weeds and seeds from a 100 gm sample were removed. The
total weight was obtained and then the dockage percentage was calculated as follows:

Percentage Discoloured kernels

25 gm paddy was measured using measuring scale. The discolored paddy were separated and
then computed as following:

Grain Dimensions
Using a caliper, twenty (20) paddy samples were selected at random from each replicate and
the dimension measured to obtain the average length and width of the paddy grains. To obtain
the paddy shape, the following equation was used:

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Percentage immature and chalky grains:
Immature Grains: (Chalky and immature kernels are combined and treated as one
component). A 25 gm grain sample was measured, selected and segregated and the immature
grains in sample were weighed.
The percentage immature grains in the sample were calculated using the formula

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 STORAGE OF HANDLING OF AGRI-COMMODITIES
(RICE AND WHEAT)
For agricultural commodities there is a mismatch in the timing of consumption and
production. The function of storage is to smooth consumption of a commodity over time,
both within and between crop years. The supply of a commodity is equal to production in a
given year, plus carryover of stored product from the previous year. Carryover stocks serve
two important functions. They meet pipeline needs while buyers are waiting for the following
harvest and guard against poor yields the following year.

To get high quality grain on farm

If farmers have a market that offers better prices for better quality grain then producing high
quality grain on-farm allows farmers to add value to their work and so raises their incomes.
To produce this high quality grain, it is essential to do on-farm postharvest handling in a
proper and timely manner. Care taken at this stage is far more cost effective than attempting
to upgrade quality later in the postharvest chain, for example at the collection point of a
Farmers’ Organisation (FO) or in a trader’s warehouse. In these places grain may have to be
cleaned at the expense of the farmer and large amounts of grain may be lost in the process.

Good practices of placement of grain in the bag store

1. The sacks entering the store should be placed on pallets. Make sure the pallets are
clean, level and have no protruding nails.
2. Build the bags into a stack on the pallets using a key system with units of three bags.
3. Build the first complete layer of sacks on the pallets using units of three. The position
of sacks in the second layer should be in the opposite direct from the first.
4. Side view of a bag stack built using the ‘key system’ (left hand side), and one where
the key system has not been used (right hand side).

78
 a.
5. Sacks should be
positioned up to the
edge of the pallets
but not overlapping.

Inspection of the grain

It is important to inspect
the inside of the store.
 At the start of each day check the store for signs of water leakage, check the floor and
tops of bag stacks for signs of damage (rodent or insect) eg grains under or around
pallets
 Check for holes in the bags that need to be repaired
 Check for insects in the store, inspect for moving insects in the late afternoon
(16.00h), check the ‘ears’ of bags and crevices between bags, listen for the sounds of
insects eating grain, and use a torch to inspect the dark areas of the store.
Fumigation
If insects are found on the grain during routine inspections then a fumigation will be needed
to prevent them causing serious damage to the stock.
Fumigation involves placing a gas-tight sheet over each of the bag stacks in the store. Solid
tablets of aluminium phosphate are placed under the pallets (or at least under the sheet) on
trays. On contact with air the tablets release a poisonous gas that will kill the insects.

Storage of Fruits and Vegetables

The lowest temperature that does not cause chilling injury is the ideal storage temperature
for fresh fruits and vegetables. Mechanical refrigeration is generally used for the storage
of fruits and vegetables. Mechanical refrigeration is, however, energy intensive
and
expensive, involves considerable initial capital79
investment, and requires uninterrupted
supplies of electricity which are not always readily available, and cannot be quickly and
easily installed. Available cold storage in India is used primarily for the storage of potatoes.
Appropriate cool storage technologies are therefore required in India.

On Farm Storage
On farm storage is required in remote and inaccessible areas of India, to reduce losses in
highly perishable fresh horticultural produce. The high cost and high energy requirements of
refrigeration, and the difficulty of installing and running refrigerated facilities in remote areas
of India, precludes the use of refrigerated storage in many parts of India. Low-cost, low-
energy, environmentally friendly cool chambers made from locally available materials,and
which utilize the principles of evaporative cooling, were therefore developed in response to
this problem. These cool chambers are able to maintain temperatures at 10–15oC below
ambient, as well as at a relative humidity of 90%, depending on the season. Fruits and
vegetables are stored in plastic crates within the chamber. The shelf life of the fruit and
vegetables maintained in the cool chamber was reported to be increased from 3 days at room
temperature, to 90 days.

Control Atmosphere/Modified Atmosphere Storage

Controlled atmosphere (CA) or modified atmosphere (MA) storage involves adjustment of
the atmospheric composition surrounding commodities by removal (mainly O2) or addition
(mainly CO2) of gases from the environment surrounding the fruits and vegetables. MA does
not differ in principle from CA storage except for the fact that the concentrations of the gases
are less precisely controlled. Basic requirements for CA storage include a gas tight chamber
and control of the concentrations of CO2 and O2. When combined with refrigeration, CA
markedly enhances the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.

Containerization
The use of containers for the transportation of goods was recently introduced into India.
Relatively little attention has, however, been given to the use of containers for the transport
of fresh horticultural produce. Containerization provides an excellent system for the shipment
of goods from one place to another. Refrigerated containers are used in the transportation of
fruits, vegetables and flowers in many developing countries. The design and fabrication of
ventilated containers which incorporate evaporative cooling systems should be considered for
the Indian context.

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Cold/Cool Chain
The adoption of cold chain systems has been pivotal to trade in fruits and vegetables in
developed countries. The maintenance of low temperatures at different stages of handling
helps in reducing losses and in retaining the quality of fruits and vegetable. High cost and the
lack of abundant uninterrupted power supplies, make it impossible to develop cold chain
systems in India. Consideration should, however, be given to the development of alternative
cooling systems based on evaporative cooling techniques. Systems of this type would at least
reduce postharvest deterioration and extend the shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables.

Traditional storage and modern storage of food grains

Food Sylos Storage Facilities

In the photo, are the mega food sylos grain storage facilities that help to store bigger
quantities of grain. Our ministry has plans to build up such type of grain storage sylos.

81
 APPLICATION OF SOFT X-RAYS, ACOUSTIC RESONANCE AND
MACHINE VISION

Soft X-rays
Product inspection has become an indispensable
element of responsible food production, an inherent
part of any HACCP concept, and an absolute
prerequisite of successful IFS certification. Any
contamination of food with impurities of any kind
may have most serious consequences for a company,
because under the product liability law every food RAYCON X-ray scanner for the
producer is liable for contaminations of his products
inspection of food
in case a consumer should be harmed by such
contaminations. Systems for contaminant inspection materials
are used to prevent such problems. Metal detectors are
most useful for the detection of magnetic and non-
magnetic metals, but they reach their limits for
example in the inspection of aluminium-coated
packing materials.

Contaminations with glass, ceramics, stones, and similar materials also constitute a serious
problem. X-ray detection systems for food are therefore used for such applications. Sesotec
RAYCON systems furthermore offer additional advantages compared to conventional metal
detectors (and other X-ray systems available on the market). For example, RAYCON allows
the parallel inspection of two different products. Incorrectly placed or overlapping products
also are no problem at all. And apart from contaminations, other product defects such as
missing product components also can be detected.

X-ray inspection
X-rays are a form of invisible electromagnetic energy with short wavelengths and high
energies. The use of X-ray technology is most familiar to people through its use in medical
imaging. However, X-rays can also penetrate food products and allow the imaging of the
internal features of the food to detect physical defects or contaminants without damaging the

82
food product.

As an X-ray enters a food it loses some of its electromagnetic energy. If the X-ray encounters
a dense area in the food, such as a metal contaminant this will reduce the X-ray energy
further. As the X-ray leaves the food a sensor in the inspection equipment converts the X-ray
into a greyscale image of the foods interior. The denser a contaminant, the darker it will
appear in the image, which helps in its identification.

Acoustic resonance technology

Figure: Helmholtz resonator system for food volume measurement

physical properties such as size, shape and moisture content of agricultural products
determined by acoustic response or density and volume measurement also used
Measuring the sound produced by manipulation of a food product can be performed by
destructive and non-destructive tests (passive and active method). Acoustic methods are
divided into methods of measuring sound emission, absorption and other methods of
determining phase oscillation.
The majority of acoustic measurements of noisy agro food texture have
combined with force deformation measures or low-mass impact to predict the sensations of
crispness.
Application of acoustics in agricultural processing
 Fruit ripening measurement
 Fruit Sorting, Grading and Separating
 Determination of Physical Properties (Size, Shape, Volume and Moisture)
83
Machine vision
Many applications using machine vision technology have been developed in agricultural
sectors, such as land-based and aerial-based remote sensing for natural resources
assessments, precision farming, postharvest product quality and safety detection,
classification and sorting, and process automation. This is because machine vision systems
not only recognize size, shape, color, and texture of objects, but also provide numerical
attributes of the objects or scene being imaged.
Advantages of using imaging technology for sensing are that it can be fairly accurate, non-
destructive, and yields consistent results.
Applications of machine vision technology
It will improve industry’s productivity, thereby reducing costs and making agricultural
operations and processing safer for farmers and processing-line workers. It will also help to
provide better quality and safe foods to consumers.
Components of a machine vision system
Machine vision systems commonly used in agricultural applications acquire reflectance,
transmittance, or fluorescence images of the agricultural materials under UV, VIS, or NIR
illumination. A basic machine vision system consists of a camera, a computer equipped with
an image acquisition board, and a lighting system. Also, computer software is required for
transmitting electronic signals to computers, acquiring images, and performing storage and
processing of the images.

Figure: Digital image processing system

1.lighting
2.Frame grabber
3. Image
processing and
analysis
software
4. CCD cameras 84
 DEVELOPMENT OF BAKERY PRODUCTS I

PRODUCT 1 –TOMATO SAUCE

Ingredients:

Tomato - 1kg

Sugar - 75g

Spice bag

 Ginger
garlic
paste -
5g
 Onion
- 5g
 Cloves
- 2g
 Chilli
powder
- 5g
 Pepper
- 3g
 Cinna
mon -
2g

Procedure:

1. 1 kg of tomato was weighed and washed with clean water.

2. The tomatoes were then blanched in hot water.
3. The blanched tomatoes were ground and filtered.The filtrate was collected and poured
in a saucepan.
4. Sugar and spice bag were added to the filtrate and were continuously stirred until the
required consistency was achieved.

85
PRODUCT 2 – TOMATO CONSERVE

Ingredients:

Tomato - 1kg

Sugar - 125g

Salt - 5g

Spice bag

 Ginger
garlic
paste -
5g
 Onion
- 5g
 Cloves
- 2g
 Chilli
powder
- 5g
 Pepper
- 3g
 Cinna
mon -
2g

Procedure:

1. 1 kg of tomato was weighed and washed with clean water.

2. The tomatoes were then blanched in hot water.
3. The tomatoes were cooked in a saucepan for about 15 minutes and then the salt, sugar
and the spice bags were added.
4. The mixture was stirred till the required consistency is achieved.

86
 PROCESSING OF OIL SEEDS AND SOYABEAN
Soybean contains about 40% protein and 20% oil.Soy protein is the most economical protein
produced in the world. The quality soy-protein has illustrated by its content of all the essential
amino-acids with the exception of sulphur containing amino-acids.Soybean oil is very
popular with rich value of Omega 3 and Omega 6. Those fatty acids regulate lipid and
cholesterol metabolism and prevent narrowing in artery veins. In addition its high content of
vitamin B makes digestion easier and by this feature it prevents chronicle digestion problem
and constipation.

PROCESSING OF SOYABEAN OIL

1. DE-HULLING

The soybeans are first cleaned, dried and de-hulled prior to oil extraction. The soybean hulls
needs to be removed because they absorb oil and give a lower yield. This de-hulling is done
by cracking the soybeans and a mechanical separation of the hulls and cracked soybeans.
Soybean de-hulling methods differ primarily in the technique used to attain targeted moisture
range.
A. In Conventional De-hulling:Soybean tempering followed by cracking, screening and
aspiration.
B. Hot De-hulling:Which involves the use of fluidized bed to achieve the desired
moisture equilibrium before cracking.
C. Esher Wyss De-hulling System: In which the soybeans are first cracked into two
pieces prior to the use of a fluidized bed to achieve uniform target moisture content.

2. COLD PRESSES OIL

The whole or de-hulled soybean at field moisture content is fed continuously to the dry
extruder. The extruder is set up in appropriate configuration to achieve the desired degree of
cooking. Within the extruder barrel, the material is subjected to friction, shear and pressure
whereby heat is generated through viscous dissipation of mechanical energy.The temperature

87
during cold pressing should not exceed 50 °C.The average residence time of the material
within the extruder is under 30 seconds.
The frictional forces within the extruder barrel and the sudden decompression of the material
as it exits the extruder cause the rupture of the cell structure and release of oil from the sub-
cellular sites. Soybean exiting the extruder is immediately and continuously conveyed into a
continuous horizontal screw press where the oil and meal are separated. The process of
extrusion changes the physical characteristics of the soybean from solid particles to an oily
meal.

The bulk density and compressibility are drastically altered. Hence, a conventional screw
press designed to press whole oil seeds will not handle the extruded soybean. The pressing
worm and the barrel cage of the press must be re-configured to handle the extruded product.
The process of extrusion results in significant increase in the throughput rate of the press over
it is rated capacity for whole oil seeds. The oil and meal exiting the press are at elevated
temperature. They are further processed or cooled to near room temperature before storage.
Pressed soybean oil has high value of tocopherol which imparts oxidative stability to the oil.

3. SOLVENT EXTRACTION

First the soybeans are cut in flakes which are put in a percolation extractors and immerged
with a solvent, normally hexane. Counter flow is used as extraction system because it gives
the highest yield. After removing the hexane, the extracted flakes only contain about 1% of
soybean oil and is used as livestock meal or to produce food products such as soy protein.
The hexane is separated from the soybean oil in evaporators. The evaporated hexane is
recovered and returned to the extraction process.
Purification:
The crude soybean oil still contains many oil-insoluble and oil-soluble impurities that needs
to be removed. The oil-insoluble material are removed with filtration and the soluble
materials is removed with different processes including degumming (removing of
phosphatides), alkali refining (washing with alkaline solution to remove free fatty acids,
colorants, insoluble matter and gums) and bleaching (with activated earth or activated carbon
to remove colour and other impurities.

88
Hydrogenation:
This process will increase the stability of the soybean oil and will make it less liquid.
However, this process will create more saturated fats and will reduce the favourable
unsaturated fats. In addition, Trans fats are produced which can cause health problems.
Hydrogenated soybean oil is used in foods that require more solid fat such as margarines.

NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Soybean seed oil is the one of the most preferred oil for a healthy life. The reasons that
people’s choice are quality, functionality, being precursors of Omega-3, Omega-6 and
Vitamin E, having a low price of soybean oil.Dietary protein has come largely from meat. On
the basis of economics, it is much less expensive to produce vegetable protein than animal
protein. From the perspective of ecology, production of vegetable protein is much more
favourable than animal sources.
About 61% of the fatty acid chains of the soybean triglyceride molecules are
polyunsaturated.Soybean oil contains more Vitamin E than any other commonly consumed
vegetable oil. Tocopherol is a naturel anti-oxidant which serves to retard soybean oil
oxidative degradation.

USAGE
The neutralized-bleached-deodorized soybean oil is usually used as salad oil, cooking oil,
baking fats, confectionary fats, ingredient for margarine and mayonnaise, heavy-duty frying
oil if blended with a high stability oil like cottonseed or palm oil.
The lightly, lightly too moderately, moderately, moderately too highly and highly-
hydrogenated oil is used as frying oil, ingredient for margarine, shortening, confectionery fat
and stabilizer applications.

OBJECTIVES
We got knowledge about\
 The process of extraction of soybean oil.
 And extraction methods cold press and solvent extraction.
 Nutritional value of soybean oil.
 Soybean oil is rich in polyunsaturated fats, regulates the body temperature, transport
fat-soluble vitamins throughout body, rich source of Omega-3 fatty acids and good
source of antioxidant Vitamin E.

89
 NON-THERMAL PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION:

Food deteriorate in quality due to a wide range of chemical and enzymatic reactions, added to
this the consumer demands faster production rate for high quality food with “fresh-like”
characteristics and long shelf life, leading to the application of thermal processes for food
preservation. However this thermal treatments cause undesirable effects on food flavor, color
and nutritional attributes such as protein and vitamin destruction. These market conditions
together with the disadvantages of the traditional food preservation technologies forced the
food products manufacturers to seek for improvements in existing methods and the
development of new preservation technologies.

The kinds of non-thermal processing methods that are currently being explored for a
variety of ready-to-eat products to retain fresh attributes of food while ensuring safety are:

 High Pressure Processing (HPP)

 Gases (ozone, chlorine dioxide,
cold plasma)
 Light (ultraviolet, pulsed light)
 Chemical (chlorine, surfactants)
 Ionizing radiation (gamma
irradiation, electron beam)

High Pressure Processing (HPP)

This non-thermal process is currently being used commercially in the food industry to target
specific pathogens in specific food products such as Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio
vulnificus in oysters, and Listeria monocytogenes as post-process treatment on sliced deli
meats etc. High pressure processing kills microorganisms by exposing foods to very high
pressures. The normal pressure used to kill pathogens in food using HPP can be 2000- 2,500
times higher than normally found in an automobile tire. The high pressure causes the
microorganisms membrane to be disrupted and causes them to die. The food is largely
protected from the damaging force of the pressure since pressure is uniformly distributed
around and throughout the food.

90
Ozone

Ozone is a powerful sanitizer, similar to chlorine or common bleach. It’s a major advantage
over other sanitizers, is that ozone leaves no residue and has no risk of causing undesirable
organochloride cancer-causing by- products. Ozone is the sweet smell in the air after a
lightning strike, and is commonly formed when a photocopy machine is operating. While
the air we breathe contains two atoms of oxygen, O2, ozone contains three atoms of oxygen,
O3 making it very reactive. Ozone is able to kill pathogens, and extend food shelf life, and is
only toxic to humans at very high doses.

Cold Plasma Processing

Cold plasma is generated by using electricity and a carrier gas, such as air, oxygen, nitrogen,
or helium; antimicrobial chemical agents are not required. The result is electrical discharges
and subsequent ionization of atmospheric air. The microbial inactivation effect of plasma
treatment can be attributed to the formation of a number of antimicrobial products in the air:
UV, radiation, ozone, charged particles and “supercharged” oxygen.

Ultra-Violet (UV) Light

At high levels, UV light causes damage to a microorganism’s DNA. It is this characteristic of

UV light that is used to kill pathogens that are contained in food but does not impart any
health concerns to the food. UV processing is being used in the juice and cider industries for
pasteurization without heat targeting E. coli O157:H7 and Cryptosporidium parvum. UV has
not been used on other produce or shellfish for pathogen reduction, but is commonly
employed for water treatment systems, shellfish wet storage, and municipal water.

Sanitizer Washes

Sanitizers, like chlorine, are used by the food industry to help kill pathogens in both food and
on equipment/utensil surfaces. Sanitizers used in the food industry are regulated by the FDA
for approved applications, types of sanitizers and allowable. However, microorganisms can
attach to food, lowering the effectiveness of a sanitizer to help remove pathogens. To address
this problem, use of surfactants is being studied to enhance the effectiveness of sanitizer. An
example of surfactants currently being used is as a component of detergents to allow for more
effective cleaning.

Gamma Irradiation

91
Gamma irradiation is approved in the US and worldwide for a variety of food products.
Although this type of irradiation has been studied for close to 50 years, it is often
misunderstood. Inaccurate information often cited about this process has led to an
unwarranted fear of its use in food products. This process does not make food radioactive -
energies from irradiation are far too low to induce radioactivity. Worldwide organizations
have concluded that irradiation, used within regulatory parameters with upper levels clearly
defined, is safe to use to control targeted pathogens in food products.

E-Beam

Electron beam irradiation (E-beam) is another non-thermal technology where high energy
accelerated electrons are aimed at solid or liquid foods, reducing the number of or eliminating
pathogens, pests or insects. Unlike Gamma irradiation, E-beam technology uses no
radioactive isotopes. E-beam may work against pathogens such as viruses and bacteria by
breaking the linkages in DNA or RNA and by disrupting other parts that are essential to the
organism. E-beam is used to ensure the safety of packaged ground meats by killing
pathogens.

92
 DRYING AND THERMAL PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES FOR
FOOD CROPS

INTRODUCTION:

Food drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Since drying reduces the
moisture in foods making them lightweight and convenient to store, it can easily be used in
place of other food preservation techniques. In fact, one can even use drying along with other
food preservation techniques such as freezing or canning, which would make the process of
food preservation even better.

Drying food is simple, safe and easy to learn. The early American settlers practiced drying
food using the natural forces of sun and wind and today, the use of technology has
revolutionized this method of preserving food. With modern food dehydrators, foods such as
fruit leathers, fruit chips, dried nuts and seeds and meat jerky, can all be dried year-round at
home.

OBJECTIVES:

 Methods of drying
 Types of drying
 Packaging of dried foods

DRYING METHODS:

OVEN DRYING:

Arrange the seasoned strips of meat on cake racks or directly on oven racks. The edges of the
strips may touch, but they should not overlap. Leave space at the edges of the racks so that air
can circulate around the meat as it dries. Set the oven on the lowest possible temperature and
maintain at about 140 degrees to 150 F. (60 to 65 C.). Use an oven thermometer to check the
temperature. To prevent the meat from sticking to the racks , turn the strips over every hour or
so.

Keep the oven door slightly ajar to allow the moist air to escape and to control the oven
temperature. An electric fan placed in front of the oven door will help the air circulate and
shorten the drying time. When drying marinated meat, you may need to line the bottom of the
oven with aluminium foil to catch the drippings. Oven drying takes from 10 to 12 hours.

DRYING IN A FOOD DRYER:

You can also use a food dryer for making jerky. Place the slices of meat on the racks. Put a
piece of aluminium foil below the bottom rack if necessary to catch the drippings. Leave l
inches of space around the foil to allow hot air to rise from the heating unit. Turn the strips of
meat over occasionally to keep them from sticking to the rack.

Do not dry seasoned meat at the same time you are drying other foods in the dryer because
the meat will give a strong odour to the other foods. This is also true if you are drying meat in

93
the oven. Making jerky in the food dryer will take a little longer than in the oven because the
temperature is usually slightly lower.

SMOKEHOUSE DRYING:

If you have a smokehouse, you can use it for making jerky. Lay seasoned strips of meat on
racks or hang them from the ceiling of the smokehouse. Starting temperature should be 80
degrees F. (27 C.), then it should be increased gradually to 120 F. (49 C.). Smoke the jerky
until it is the desired texture (24 to 48 hours).

Use any hardwood such as hickory or oak for smoking. Do not use pine, fir, or conifers
because the resin (sap) bums and creates an undesirable smoke. Put aluminium foil or a metal
tray under the meat to catch the drippings. If you don't do this the drippings will bum and
produce smoke that gives the meat an unpleasant flavour.

AIR DRYING:

Meat strips can be air dried, but this requires very hot, dry weather. Place strips on the grill of
an outdoor barbecue. Or string them on heavy string or fishing line and hang outside in a
sunny, airy place for several days. Bring the meat indoors at night so that it doesn't absorb
moisture.

Air drying is not as satisfactory as oven drying or smoking because the temperature cannot be
controlled. Also, the meat may be exposed to insanitary conditions from dirt in the air.
Outdoor drying may invite unwanted guests such as dogs, cats, wild animals, and insects. If
practical, cover the meat loosely with cheesecloth to prevent contamination.

HOW DRYING PRESERVES FOOD:

Drying basically dehydrates or removes the moisture from the food and this simple action
inhibits the growth of bacteria, mould and yeast. Moreover, it slows down the enzyme action
without deactivating them. These factors ensure that food does not spoil easily and hence,
makes drying an effective food preservation technique.

Since drying removes the water from the food, the weight of the food item also reduces. This
not only makes it lighter but also shrinks it in size. In order to use the food, all one has to do
is add water to it.

Another factor that helps with drying food is humidity. Since drying involves extracting the
moisture from the food items and expelling it into the surrounding air, low humidity will help
with the drying process. If the humidity is high, drying will be slower simply because the
surrounding air would also be laden with moisture. By increasing the currents or flow of air,
one can speed up the drying process.

DRYING FOOD OUT-OF-DOOR:

SUN DRYING:

Drying food in the sun is a safe and economical way to preserve food, especially fruits. Meats
and vegetables, however, cannot be dried outdoors since they have a low sugar and acid
94
content. Fruits have a high sugar and acid content, which makes sun drying safe and easy.
Meats and vegetables are best dried indoors in a controlled oven or dehydrator since
temperature and humidity are essential when preserving these food groups.

In order to dry food in the sun, one needs to have both warm temperatures and a constant
breeze. A minimum temperature of 85 deg F is essential while higher temperatures are
obviously better. The high temperature will extract the moisture while the breeze would help
to dispel it into the surrounding air. A low level of humidity is also essential for successful sun
drying. The high humidity levels in the South make sun drying difficult. Humidity of below
60 percent is ideal.

Sun drying is a slow and time-consuming process since the unpredictable and uncontrollable
weather is the drying agent. Moreover, it is this unpredictability, that also makes sun drying a
risky process. For instance, in California, sudden rains can ruin the entire supply of raisins.
Not only that, having the ideal mix of temperature, humidity and air flow is often difficult to
achieve and this prompts one to look for other methods of drying food.

Fruit that is being dried in the sun needs to be protected from the cool night air that could add
the moisture back to the fruit. Therefore, the fruits must either be brought in every night or
put under some form of shelter to protect them from the night dew.

Equipment

For drying food in the sun, one needs racks or screens that are placed on blocks or on a
concrete surface. This arrangement and equipment ensures adequate flow of air around the
food. To prevent transfer of moisture from the earth, place the racks or screens on a concrete
surface or over a sheet of aluminium, which will help to increase the temperature.

It is essential to use food-grade quality materials for the screens or racks. Ideally one should
use screens made of stainless steel, Teflon-coated fibre glass or plastic. Avoid screens made of
copper, aluminium or “hardware cloth” which is basically galvanized metal coated with zinc
or cadmium. All these metals are unsafe since they can oxidize, leave residue on food or
affect the nutritional quality of food items.

To protect the drying fruits from birds and insects, it is important to protect the fruits with
some form of covering. To do this, one can simply use either another screen or a covering of
cheesecloth.

SOLAR DRYING:

Solar drying is the result of technological advances made in the field of sun drying. Solar
drying is a process of drying foods by harnessing the heat energy of the sun in a special
dehydrator that not only increase the temperature but also, improves the air flow. This speeds
up the process of drying the food and reduces the risk of food getting mouldy or spoilt.

A solar dryer increases the temperature by using a reflector such as glass or aluminium while
air flow is improved with the help of vents at each end. The technique and system is fairly
simple. Cool air enters the dryer, removes moisture and escapes. The reflector surface helps to
increase the heat by 20 deg F to 30 deg F. A cover of plastic protects the food, prevents

95
rain or dew from dampening it and screens over the vents prevent birds and insects from
attacking the fruit.

One may need to change the position of the solar dryer throughout the day in order to
maximize the heat received from the sun. Also, one will have to stir the food several times to
ensure uniform drying.

Solar dehydrators are available easily and in many variants. One can even make them at
home after getting the requisite directions.

VINE DRYING:

Vine drying is yet another simple and effective way of drying food outdoors. This method is
especially useful for beans and lentils. All one needs to do in order to dry beans such as
kidney, soy, navy and lentils, is to leave the bean pods on the vine till the beans inside rattle.
It is relatively simple since no pre treatment of food is required. Once the bean pods are
completely dry, simply pick them and shell. If required, further drying may be completed by
drying them in the sun, oven or a commercial dehydrator.

DRYING FOOD INDOORS:

Drying foods indoors is easy and possible with the help of modern gadgets such as food
dehydrators, conventional ovens or countertop convection ovens. While one can dry herbs in
a microwave, it isn’t possible to dry other foods simply because there isn’t adequate air flow.

FOOD DEHYDRATORS:

Food dehydrators are small electrical appliances that can be used to dry and preserve food
indoors. A dehydrator has an electric element for the heat and a fan and vents for air flow and
circulation. Most dehydrators are designed to dry foods at 140 deg F, which makes them
efficient and quick.

Dehydrator Features to Look For

Here are some standard features that one should look for when buying a food dehydrator.

Double wall construction of metal or high-grade plastic with enclosed heating elements and
an enclosed thermostat with temperatures from 85 deg F to 160 deg F.

 A dial for regulating temperature and a timer to prevent food from over-drying and
scorching.
 An easy-to-use, counter top design.
 A fan or blower to ensure flow of air and circulation.
 Four to ten open mesh trays made of sturdy lightweight plastic. Trays should be easily
washable and low on maintenance.
 The UL seal of approval with a one-year guarantee.
 Easy to maintain and use with proven after-sales service.

96
TYPES OF DEHYDRATORS:

HOMEMADEDEHYDRATOR:
It is possible to build a dehydrator at home after getting the required instructions from the
county Extension offices. A homemade dehydrator will be cheaper however; it may not be as
convenient and efficient as a commercial one.

ROOMDRYING:
Drying food in the room is different from sun drying. Here the food that has to be dried is
placed in a well-ventilated room or covered space. Fruits, nuts, herbs and hot peppers are
usually dried in this manner.

To dry herbs and hot peppers, either suspend them from a string or tie in bundles and suspend
them from overhead racks. Keep the herbs and peppers covered in paper bags with small
openings to allow air circulation. The paper covering will protect them from dust, insects and
other pollutants. To air dry nuts in the room, simply spread them on a single layer of paper
while for partially sun dried fruits, one can simply leave them on their drying trays.

DEHYDROFREEZING:
De hydro freezing is a new method of food preservation that uses both the techniques of
drying and freezing. Fruits that have been dried at home usually have 80 percent of their
moisture removed while vegetables have 90 percent. However, if only 70 percent of the
moisture is removed and then, the fruit or vegetable is stored in the freezer, the final product
will definitely be better tasting. De hydro freezing achieves this by combining freezing and
drying.

PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF DRIED FOODS:

It is important to pack and store dried foods properly since they are prone to insect
contamination and moisture re-absorption.

Begin by cooling the foods completely. Foods that are warm tend to give off moisture, which
could cause mould and bacteria. After cooling, tightly pack the dried food into clean and dry
insect-proof containers. While packing them tightly, do ensure that the food does not get
crushed or broken.

One can use glass jars, metal cans, boxes with tight fitted lids or moisture-vapour resistant
freezer cartons to pack foods. While it is possible to use heavy-duty plastic bags, these cannot
protect the food from insects and rodents. To keep out moisture, use plastic bags with a 3/8-
inch seal. Fruit that has been sulfured should not be placed in metal containers directly.
Fumes from sulfur can react with the metal and cause discoloration. So, place the fruit first in
a plastic bag and then, store it in a metal canister.

It is a good idea to pack foods according to serving -or recipe-size amounts. Reopening the
package several times will expose the dried food to air and moisture, therefore reducing its
shelf life and quality.Keep a close eye on stored dried food to check for moisture that may
creep in during storage. Glass containers make this easily possible. If one spots moisture on
food, it is a good idea to dry and package them again. Mouldy foods, however, should be
discarded immediately.

97
 APPLICATION OF MICROWAVE IN FOOD PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION:

Due to the very large number of microwave ovens in households, the food related industry
not only uses microwaves for processing but also develops products and product properties
especially for microwave heating. This way of product enhancement is called product
engineering or formulation.

BAKING AND COOKING:

Detailed references to the baking process of bread, cakes, pastry etc. by the help of
microwaves on industrial scale can be found. An enhanced throughput is achieved by an
acceleration of the baking where the additional space needs for microwave power generators
are negligible. Microwaves in baking are used in combination with conventional or infrared
surface baking; this avoids the problem of the lack of crust formation and surface browning.
An advantage of the combined process is the possible use of European soft wheat with high
alpha-amylase and low protein content.

In contrast to conventional baking microwave heating inactivates this enzyme fast enough
(due to a fast and uniform temperature rise in the whole product) to prevent the starch from
extensive breakdown, and develops sufficient CO2 and steam to produce a highly porous
(Decareau, 1986). One difficulty to be overcome was a microwavable baking pan, which is
sufficiently heat resistant and not too expensive for commercial use. By 1982 patents
had been issued overcoming this problem by using metal baking pans in microwave ovens
(Schiffmann et al., 1981 and Schiffmann, 1982).

The main use of microwaves in the baking industry today is the microwave finishing,
when the low heat conductivity lead to considerable higher baking times in the
conventional process. A different process that also can be accelerated by application of
microwave heating is (pre-) cooking. It has been established for (pre)cooking of poultry
(Helmar et al., 2007), meat patties and bacon. Microwaves are the main energy source, to
render the fat and coagulate the proteins by an increased temperature. In the same time the
surface water is removed by a convective air flow. Another advantage of this technique is
the valuable by-product namely rendered fat of high quality, which is used as food
flavoring (Schiffmann, 1986).

THAWING AND TEMPERING:

Thawing and tempering have received much less attention in the literature than most
other food processing operations. In commercial practice there are relatively few controlled
thawing systems. Frozen meat, fish, vegetables, fruit, butter and juice concentrate are
common raw materials for many food-manufacturing operations. Frozen meat, as supplied
to the industry, ranges in size and shape from complete hindquarters of beef to small

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breasts of lamb and poultry portions, although the majority of the material is `boned-out'
and packed in boxes approximately 15 cm thick weighing between 20 and 40 kg. Fish is
normally in plate frozen slabs; fruit and vegetables in boxes, bags or tubs; and juice in large
barrels. Few processes can handle the frozen material and it is usually either thawed or
tempered before further processing.

DRYING:
The benefits of microwave drying we should first have a quick look at the much more
conventional method of air drying. The first period is one of constant drying rate per unit of
surface area. During this period the surface is kept wet by the constant capillary-driven
flow of water from within the particle. The factors that determine and limit the rate of
drying in the so-called `constant rate period' all describe the state of the air: temperature
and relative humidity as well as air velocity (Erle, 2000). In drying the main cause for the
application of microwaves is the acceleration of the processes, which are (without using
microwaves) limited by low thermal conductivities, especially in products of low moisture
content. Correspondingly sensorial and nutritional damage caused by long drying times or
high surface temperatures can be prevented. The possible avoidance of case hardening, due
to more homogeneous drying without large moisture gradients is another advantage. Two
cases of microwave drying are possible, drying at atmospheric pressure and that with
applied vacuum conditions.

Microwave vacuum dehydration is used for the concentration or even powder production of
fruit juices and drying of grains in short times without germination .Newly and
successfully applied is the combination of pre-air-drying, intermittent microwave vacuum
drying (called puffing) and post-air-drying. It is predominantly used to produce dried fruits
and vegetables, with improved rehydration properties (Räuber, 2000). After the form is
stabilized by case hardening due to conventional air-drying, the microwave vacuum
process opens the cell structures (puffing) due to the fast vapourization of water and an
open pore structure is generated. The subsequent post-drying reduces the water content to
the required value.

In general, the quality is somewhere between air-dried and freeze-dried productsQuality can
often be improved further by the use of vacuum. This reduces thermal as well as oxidative
stress during processing.

MICROWAVE DRYING APPLIED IN FOOD INDUSTRY:

Microwave drying is not common in the food industry. There are many reasons for its limited
use: the technical problems described above were not well- understood in the past. This has
led to some failures, which have surely discouraged other potential users. Schiffmann (2001)
has listed a number of formerly successful applications that have been discontinued. Among
these are the finish drying of potato chips, pasta drying, snack drying, and the finish drying of
biscuits and crackers. It is apparently not always the microwave process itself but rather

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changes in the circumstances of production that make competing technologies more
successful.

The combination of air drying and microwave-vacuum puffing is being used in Germany
and Poland for fruits and vegetables. As the food industry does not disclose all its
production processes, we cannot expect this list to be complete. Hauri (1989) has provided
values for the necessary investment and the specific energy requirements of five different
drying methods (Table 1). Based on the same throughput, the investment needed for
microwave-vacuum drying is rather high, while the energy figures are more favorable than
for air drying.
Types of Specific energy demand Specific investment costs
drying process for
kwh/kg equal throughput

Air band drying 1.9 100%

Spry drying 1.6 120%
Vacuum contact drying 1.3 150%
Microwave 1.5 190%
Vacuum drying
Freez drying 2.0 230%
Comparison of five different drying method
PASTEURISATION AND STERILISATION:
Studies of microwave assisted pasteurization and sterilization have been motivated by the
fast and effective microwave heating of many foods containing water or salts. A detailed
review can be found in (Rosenberg et al., 1987). Although, physically non-thermal effects
on molecules are very improbable, early works seemed to show just these effects. But in
most cases the results claimed could not be reproduced, or they lacked an exact temperature
distribution determination. The improbability of non-thermal effects becomes clear, when
the quantum energy of photons of microwaves, of a thermal radiator and the energy of
molecular bonds are compared. The quantum energy of a photon of f = 2.45 GHz is defined
by E = h f ≈ 1*10-5 eV, the typical energy of a photon radiated from a body of 25°C ≈ 298
K equals E = k T ≈ 0.26 eV and the energy of molecule bonds are in the eV- range.
The possibly high and nearly homogeneous heating rates, also in solid foods (heat generation
within the food) and the corresponding short process times, which helps preserving a very
high quality yield advantages of microwave compared to conventional techniques. The crucial
point in both processes is the control and the knowledge of the lowest temperatures within the
product, where the destruction of microorganisms has the slowest rate. Due to the difficult
measurement or calculation of temperature profiles it is still very seldom industrially used.

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BLANCHING USING MICROWAVE PROCESSING:
Blanching is an important step in the industrial processing of fruits and vegetables. It consists
of a thermal process that can be performed by immersing vegetables in hot water (88-99 0C,
the most common method), hot and boiling solutions containing acids and/or salts, steam, or
microwaves. Blanching is carried out before freezing, frying, drying and canning. The main
purpose of this process is to inactivate the enzyme systems that may cause color, flavor and
textural changes, such as peroxidase, polyphenol-oxidase, lipoxygenase and pectin enzymes.
The efficiency of the blanching process is usually based on the inactivation of one of the heat
resistant enzymes: peroxidase or polyphenoloxidase.
APPLICATION OF MICROWAVE BLANCHING IN FOOD:
Blanching with hot water after the microwave treatment compensates for any lack of heating
uniformity that may have taken place, and also prevents desiccation or shrivelling of delicate
vegetables. And while microwave blanching alone provides a fresh vegetable flavour, the
combination with initial water or steam blanching provides an economic advantage.
A still further advantage is that microwave blanching enables a finish blanching of the
centre sections more quickly and without being affected by thick or non-uniform sections.
Uniformity is also more rapidly accomplished in microwave ovens of the continuous
tunnel types in contrast to the customary non-uniformity in institutional or domestic ovens
(Smith and Williams, 1971).
The spraying of cold water at the end of the blanching process allows a better nutrient
retention than the immersion of the food in cold water. Sub-atmospheric pressure, when
applied to the steam blanching process, reduces the amount of oxygen and therefore
results in a lower degradation of vegetable pigments and nutrients. Pressurized steam
reduces blanching time. Optimal conditions of time, temperature, vapor pressure and
microwave power depend on the particular vegetable that is being processed and must be
empirically determined.
ADVANTAGES OF MICROWAVE BLANCHING:
Microwave heating involves conversion of electromagnetic energy into heat by selective
absorption and dissipation. Microwave heating is attractive for heating of foods due to its
origin within the material, fast temperature rise, controllable heat deposition, and easy clean-
up. The very high frequencies used in microwave heating allow for rapid energy transfers
and, thus, high rates of heating. These rates are a main advantage of this technique. Also,
because microwaves penetrate the sample, heating is accomplished in the interior of the food.
When heating rapidly, the quality of fruits and vegetables such as flavour, texture, colour and
vitamin content is better kept.

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 HIGH TECH FOOD ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Food Safety and Quality Testing Laboratory which is NABL Accredited as per ISO/IES
17025-2005 at Indian Institute of Crop Processing Technology, Thanjavur contains many high
tech instruments for Food Analysis. Which are in service for public in food analysis testing
and to learn handling of those instruments under fixed charges. Some of the instruments
which we gone through.
FSSAI
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)has been established under
Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 which consolidates various acts & orders that have
hitherto handled food related issues in various Ministries and Departments. FSSAI has been
created for laying down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their
manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe and
wholesome food for human consumption.

FOOD TESTING LABORATORIES

Food testing laboratories play a very important role in helping food business operators
(FBOs) to provide good quality, wholesome, and nutritious food to the consumers. Food
products testing can range from processed foods to agricultural commodities, from the field to
the store. The testing can be done on raw materials, the product during its processing and
production, as well as the finished products. The various categories of FBOs who can avail
the services of the food testing labs include manufacturers/processors, suppliers, distributors
and food service establishment etc.

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 1. ICP-OES

ICP-OES (Inductively coupled plasma - optical emission spectrometry) is a technique in

which the composition of elements in (mostly water-dissolved) samples can be determined
using plasma and a spectrometer. The technique has been commercially available since 1974
and thanks to its reliability, multi-element options and high throughput, it has become a
widely applied in both routine research as in more specific analysis purposes.

Principle
The solution to analyse is conducted by a peristaltic pump though a nebulizer into a spray
chamber. The produced aerosol is lead into an argon plasma. Plasma is the forth state of
matter, next to the solid, liquid and gaseous state. In the ICP-OES the plasma is generated at
the end of a quarts torch by a water-cooled induction coil through which a high frequency
alternate current flows.

As a consequence an alternate magnetic field is induced which accelerated electrons into a

circular trajectory. Due to collision between the argon atom and the electrons ionization
occurs, giving rise to a stable plasma. The plasma is extremely hot, 6000-7000 K. In the
induction zone it can even reach 10000 K.
In the torch de-solvation, atomization and ionizations of the sample takes place. Due to the
thermic energy taken up by the electrons, they reach a higher "excited" state. When the
electrons drop back to ground level energy is liberated as light (photons). Each element has an
own characteristic emission spectrum. By means of an Echelle grating, a prism, and a

103
focusing mirror these emitted photon in various frequencies are captured simultaneously on a
CCD chip (Charged Coupled Device).
1. HPLC
High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) separate, identify & quantify components
dissolved in a liquid solvent with a high analytical resolution. Sample carried by a moving
gas stream of Helium or Nitrogen.
Mobile and Stationary Phase
HPLC is a form of column chromatography that pumps a sample mixture or analyst in a
solvent (known as the mobile phase) at high pressure through a column with
chromatographic packing material (stationary phase).

Function

HPLC has the ability to separate, and identify compounds that are present in any sample that
can be dissolved in a liquid in trace concentrations as low as parts per trillion.

Areas Used

 Industrial application
 Scientific application
 Pharmaceuticals
 Environmental
 Forensics
 Chemicals

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2. GC-MS

Gas chromatography ("GC") and mass spectrometry ("MS") make an effective combination
for chemical analysis First, the GC process will be considered, then the MS instrument will be
presented. After a background in GC and MS is obtained, the reader will learn how to analyse
the evidence produced by these instruments.

Gas Chromatography (GC)

GC analysis is a common confirmation test. Among its uses are drug testing and
environmental contaminant identification.GC analysis separates all of the components in a
sample and provides a representative spectral output.Each component ideally produces a
specific spectral peak that may be recorded on a paper chart or electronically.GC analysis
depends on similar phenomena to separate chemical substances.

Mass Spectrometry (MS)

MS analysis is commonly used in arson investigations, engine exhaust analysis, petroleum

product analysis, and for blood monitoring in surgery. MS identifies substances by
electrically charging the specimen molecules, accelerating them through a magnetic field,
breaking the molecules into charged fragments and detecting the different charges. A spectral
plot displays the mass of each fragment.

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GC/MS Combination

The GC device is generally a reliable analytical instrument. The GC instrument is effective in

separating compounds into their various components. The MS instrument provides specific
results but produces uncertain qualitative results. When an analyst uses the GC instrument to
separate compounds before analysis with an MS instrument, a complementary relationship
exists. The technician has access to both the retention times and mass spectral data. Many
scientists consider GC/MS analysis as a tool for conclusive proof of identity.

Although many consider GC/MS to be the "gold standard" in scientific analysis. Drug
testing, manufacturing quality control, and environmental testing are some typical uses.

3. Ion Chromatography

Ion chromatography (IC) is an analytical technique for the separation and determination of
ionic solutes in water in general especially environmental in industrial processes, metal
industry and industrial waste water in biological systems in pharmaceutical samples in food
etc. IC can be classified as a liquid chromatographic method, in which a liquid permeates
through a porous solid stationary phase and elutes the solutes into a flow-through detector.

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Instrumentation components

 The pump
 Injector
 Detector
 Data section

The instrumentation is typical to high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Chemical compounds

 Mobile phase
 Stationary phase

The chemistry components are the ones that determine that this mode of HPLC is dedicated
to analysis of ions.

Ion Chromatographic techniques

In any chromatographic mode the composition of the mobile phase provides the chemical
environment for the interaction of the solutes with the stationary phase. Separation can be
achieve by controlling and manipulating these interactions, which effect the relative retention
times of the various sample components.

Liquid chromatographic techniques

 Ion-exchange chromatography
 Ion-exclusion chromatography
 Ion-pair (Ion-interaction) chromatography
 Capillary electrophoresis

Solutes that can be determined using IC

 Inorganic ions such as Cl-, Br-, SO42- etc.

 Inorganic cations, including alkali metal, alkaline earth, transition metal and rare
earth ions, but not neutral metal complexes.
 Organic acids, including carboxylic, sulfonic, phosphoric acids etc.
 Organic bases, including amines.
 Ionic oregano-metallic compounds.

4. RAPID VISCO ANALYSER (RVA)

The Rapid Visco Analyser is a unique tool for product development, quality and process
control and quality assurance.

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Function

The RVA is a cooking, stirring viscometer with ramped temperature and variable shear
capability optimized for testing the viscous properties of starch, grain, flour and foods. The
instrument will analyse as little as two or three grams of sample using international standard
methods or your own tailor-made test routines of mixing, measuring, heating and cooling.

Applications include

1) Flour and grain quality

2) Native starches
3) Modified starches and starchy samples
4) Formulated foods
5) Ingredients and Foods
6) Cooked and Extruded foods
7) Melt ability tests
8) “Miniature Pilot Plant” small scale process emulation.

OBJECTIVES

We got to know about

 The functions and need of FSSAI.

 Functions of food testing laboratories.
 The history and functioning bodies of Food Safety and Quality Testing Laboratory at
IICPT.
 High tech instruments application and uses in that laboratory.

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 PASTA AND OTHER WET EXTRUDED PRODUCTS

Extrusion is a process which combines several unit operations including mixing, cooking,
kneading, shearing, shaping and forming.Extrusion is a process which combines several unit
operations including mixing, cooking, kneading, shearing, shaping and forming.
Extrusion is a process which combines several unit operations including mixing, cooking,
kneading, shearing, shaping and forming.
TECHNIQUES
The principles of operation are similar in all types: raw materials are fed into the extruder
barrel and the screw(s) then convey the food along it. Further down the barrel, smaller flights
restrict the volume and increase the resistance to movement of the food. As a result, it fills
the barrel and the spaces between the screw flights and becomes compressed.
Hot Extruction
As it moves further along the barrel, the screw kneads the material into a semi-solid,
plasticized mass. If the food is heated above 100ºC the process is known as extrusion
cooking
or hot extrusion. The food is then passed to the section of the barrel having the smallest
flights, where pressure and shearing is further increased. Finally, it is forced through dies at
the discharge end of the barrel as the food emerges under pressure from the die, it expands to
the final shape and cools rapidly as moisture is flashed off as steam. A variety of shapes,
including rods, spheres, doughnuts, tubes, strips, squirls or shells can be formed. Typical
products include a wide variety of low density, expanded snack foods and ready-to-eat (RTE)
puffed cereals.
Cold Extruction
Cold extrusion, in which the temperature of the food remains at ambient is used to mix and
shape foods such as pasta and meat products. Low pressure extrusion, at temperatures below
100ºC, is used to produce, for example, liquorice, fish pastes, surimi and pet foods.
Extrusion cooking is a high-temperature short-time (HTST) process which reduces
microbial contamination and inactivates enzymes. The main method of preservation of both
hot- and cold-extruded foods is by the low water activity of the product (0.1–0.4), and for
semi-moist products in particular, by the packaging materials that are used.
EXTRUDED PRODUCTS
1. Cereal-based products
Expanded snack foods RTE and puffed breakfast cereals Soup and beverage bases,
instant drinks Weaning foods Pre-gelatinised and modified starches, dextrin’s
Crispbread and croutons Pasta products Pre-cooked composite flours.
2. Sugar-based products
Chewing gum Liquorice Toffee, caramel, peanut brittle Fruit gums.
3. Protein-based products
Texturised vegetable protein (TVP) Semi-moist and expanded petfoods and
animal
feeds and protein supplements Sausage products, frankfurters, hot dogs Surimi
Caseinates Processed cheese
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PASTA

Pasta is a stable food of traditional Italian cuisine. Pasta is generally made from an
unleavened dough of durum wheat or from flour of other grains and cereals, simply mixed
with water, in egg pasta flour is mixed with egg and flattened into thin layer to prepare in
various shapes.

PASTA EXTRUCTION METHOD

The two main step of pasta production before drying are dough mixing and dough
extrusion.

1. Dough mixing

Flour (usually durum wheat semolina) is mixed with water, which is absorbed by flour
components, in particular starch and gluten proteins. It is important that water is evenly
distributed into the dough, to be well absorbed by starch granules and allow proper gluten net
formation, which will give pasta its structure. The amount of water added to the semolina is
in relation to the percentage of moisture required for the final pasta shape: for the long shapes
(e.g. spaghetti) destined to be spread on sticks, the dough will have to be less humid, to
prevent pasta collapsing or excessively lengthening as it suffers the effects of its gravitational
weight.
The choice water temperature is also important, and related to many other variables:
semolina’s temperature, its particle size (fine or coarse), mixing time required by the type of
kneader, presence of vacuum, shape/speed of the blades, final pasta shape, extruder and die
kinds, type of drying, etc.
Cold water is recommended in pierced long pasta to prevent the product peeling where it
comes into contact with the supporting stick, and also in fine and tiny short pasta to prevent
the cutting surface from turning white.
Hot water (40-60°C) is instead recommended for short pasta with a big diameter, long non-
pierced and thin pasta (spaghetti and spaghetti of reduced diameter), and in the production of
nests of egg pasta (e.g. tagliatelle). A limit to this rule is however reserved for dough with the
addition of eggs, which should never exceed a temperature of 30-33°C or even less if the time
of formation of the dough exceeds 12-15 minutes.
2. Pasta Extruction
A pasta extruder will automatically mix and knead pasta dough using any flour including
semolina, which is then extruded under very high pressure through solid bronze 'dies' to form
the pasta shape, there are many things that make extruded fresh pasta unique:

 Extruding through bronze dies imparts a rough surface texture to the pasta that will
hold a sauce better than pasta made by other methods. It is unique to extrusion

110
 through bronze and we believe that bronze-die extruded lasagne sheet or fettuccine
is even better than machine-rolled flat pasta.
The extruded pasta is very dry so it won't stick together, making it very easy to
handle and cook.
It's mixed 'short' and doesn't develop the gluten strands as much, resulting in less
bloat or 'fullness' and a much nicer eating experience.
The complete process of mixing, kneading the dough and extruding a batch of
pasta takes just 20 minutes. It can be cooked immediately.
An extruder is built so tough that semolina can be used, which is too hard to mix
by hand. Eggs can be added for richness, producing pasta with greater firmness and
bite than pasta made with '00' flour, while being softer and more absorbent than
dried pasta.

OBJECTIVES
We got knowledge about
 The extraction and extruded products
 The extraction methods and machines used for extraction.
 We made pasta in Incubation Centre at IICPT as like above Pasta extraction method.

111
 EXTRUSION TECHNOLOGY

Extrusion is a process that converts raw material into a product with desired shape and form
by forcing the material through a small opening using pressure. The process involves a series
of unit operations such as mixing, kneading, shearing, heating, cooling, shaping and forming.
Many food products are manufactured by extrusion cooking— a process that uses both
thermal energy and pressure to convert raw food ingredients into popular products such as
breakfast cereals,pastas, pet foods, snacks and meat products.

Extrusion has gained in popularity for the following reasons:

•Versatility. A very wide variety of products are possible by changing the ingredients,the
operating conditions of the extruder and the shape of the dies. Many extruded foods cannot be
easily produced by other methods.
•Reduced costs. Extrusion has lower processing costs and higher productivity than other
cooking or forming processes. Some traditional processes, including manufacture of
cornflakes and frankfurters, are more efficient and cheaper when replaced by extrusion
• High production rates and automated production. Extruders operate continuously and have
high throughputs. For example, production rates of up to 315 kg h_1 for snackfoods, 1200 kg
h_1 for low-density cereals and 9000 kg h_1 for dry expanded petfoods are possible (Mans,
1982). Details of automatic control of extruders are described by Olkku et al. (1980) and
Bailey et al. (1995).
•Product quality. Extrusion cooking involves high temperatures applied for a short time and
the limited heat treatment therefore retains many heat sensitive components.
•No process effluents. Extrusion is a low-moisture process that does not produce process
effluents. This eliminates water treatment costs and does not create problems of
environmental pollution.

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Equipment

1. Single-screw extruders
The equipment (consists of a cylindrical screw that rotates in a grooved cylindrical barrel,
made from hard alloys or hardened stainless steel to withstand the frictional wear.

Figure: Single-screw extruder

Compression is achieved in the extruder barrel by back pressure,created by the die and by:
• increasing the diameter of the screw and decreasing the screw pitch
• using a tapered barrel with a constant or decreasing screw pitch
• placing restrictions in the screw flights.
Die pressures vary from around 2000x103 Pa for low viscosity products to 17 000x103Pa for
expanded snack foods.
Single-screw extruders can be classified according to the extent of shearing action on the
food into:
High shear. High speeds and shallow flights create high pressures and temperatures that are
needed to make breakfast cereals and expanded snackfoods.
Medium shear. For breading, texturised proteins and semi-moist pet foods.
Low shear. Deep flights and low speeds create low pressures for forming pasta, meat products
and gums.
Twin-screw extruders
Forward or reverse conveying is used to control the pressure in the barrel. Forexample, in the
production of liquorice and fruit gums, the food is heated and compressed by forward

113
conveying, the pressure is released by reverse conveying, to vent excess moisture or to add
additional flavour ingredients, and the food is then recompressed for extrusion.
•A short discharge section develops the pressure required for extrusion and thus subjects a
smaller part of the machine to wear than in single-screw extruders.
•A mixture of particle sizes, from fine powders to grains, may be used, whereas a single
screw is limited to a specific range of granular particle sizes.

Applications

1. Cold extrusion
In this process, the product is extruded without cooking or distortion of the food. The
extruder has a deep-flighted screw, which operates at a low speed in a smooth barrel, to
knead and extrude the material with little friction. It is used to produce pasta, hot dogs, pastry
dough’s and some types of confectionery. Typical operating conditions are shown in for low
shear conditions.

2 Extrusion cooking
High pressures and temperatures are used to form expanded products. The rapid release of
pressure as the food emerges from the die causes instantaneous expansion of steam and gas in
the material, to form a low-density product. Hot extrusion is a HTST process, which
minimises the loss of nutrients and reduces microbial contamination. The moisture content of
some products, for example snack foods, crisp bread and breakfast cereals, is further reduced
after extrusion by drying.
Table: Examples of extruded foods

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 POST HARVEST HANDLING OF SPICES AND CONDIMENTS

Aromatic food substances, which enhance flavour, are classified into spices. Spices are
usually dried roots, barks, seeds used whole or crushed, powered. Spices add a glorious touch
to food with its flavour and fragrance.

 Spices add flavour, colour to food and make the food palatable.
 It stimulates salivation and acid secretion of digestive enzymes like amylase.
 It has anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and antioxidant properties. It reduces
cholesterol levels useful in preventing heart diseases.
India is known as the “Land of Spices”, since it is the larger producer, consumer and exporter
of spices.

PROCEDURE
1. Washing
Root and rhizome species should be washed to remove the mud, dirt and microorganisms.
2. Peeling
Except ginger and garlic almost all spices are whole dried. Hand peeling with special knives
is done. Mechanical peeling is used for high grade ginger. Anyhow hand peeling is found
superior all in uniform size and colour.
3. Pricking
In order to reduce the drying time and for better colour and quality of chillies. Its skin can be
pricked longitudinally.
4. Blanching
It is carried for the inactivation of the enzymes. In order to increase the quality.
5. Chemical Treatment

115
This include alkali treatment, antioxidant treatment, bleaching by liming treatment,
sulphuring, sulphitation treatment.

6. Curing
This will reduces the losses during post-harvest and increase the storage life. It involves
suberziation of the skin, followed by the formation of wound periderm which retards moisture
loss and infection.

DRYING TECHNIQUES
1. Solar Drying

During the dry season, sun drying is usually adequate to dry the produce. The simplest
and cheapest method is to lay the produce on mats in the sun. However, there are
problems associated with this method. Dust and dirt are blown onto the crop and
unexpected rainstorms can re- wet the crop.A solar dryer avoids these problems.

2. Mechanical drying
During rainy season drying is carried out through mechanical dryers to reduce the microbial
growth.

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GRADING
Spices can be graded by size, density, colour, shape and flavour. Machines are available for
larger scale production units.
VALUE ADDED PRODUCTS
1. Spice oil and oleoresins
Spice oil are extracted by steam distillation. The spice oleoresins are extracted from the
ground spices with an organic solvent or solvent mixture.
2. Ground Spices
The spices are milled to the degree of fitness such as cracked, course grind, fine grind, etc.
Pepper, cardamom, chilli, turmeric, coriander, cumin, fenugreek are major spices ground to
powder and then exposed to value added products.

117
 3. Curry Powder
Curry powder is made from a blend of several spices, the number varying from 5 to 20 spices
depending upon the end use. Turmeric, garlic, chilli, fenugreek, fennel, coriander and black
pepper are the main raw material for quality curry powder.
4. Packed spices
Packed spices are used industrially, retail and institutionally. Different packing media are used
according to consumer’s preference. Popular packing media are glass bottles, rigid plastic
containers, metal container and flexible pouches.
5. Processed spices
The processed spices are dehydrated, frozen, freeze dried green pepper and canned pepper,
green and pink in brine

OBJECTIVES
We got knowledge about
 Spices production and export in India.
 Post harvesting techniques of spices.
 Different methods of drying in spices.
 Value added products from spices and its uses

118
 PACKAGING TECHNIQUES FOR AGRI PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION:
If produce is packed for ease of handling, heavily waxed cartons, wooden crates or rigid
plastic containers are preferable to bags or open baskets, since bags and baskets provide no
protection to the produce when stacked. Sometimes locally constructed containers can be
strengthened or lined to provide added protection to produce. Waxed cartons, wooden crates
and plastic containers, while more expensive, are reusable and can stand up to the high
relative humidity found in the storage environment. Containers should not be filled either too
loosely or too tightly for best results. Loose products may vibrate against others and cause
bruising, while over packing results in compression bruising. Shredded newspaper is a in
expensive and lightweight filler for shipping containers.

OBJECTIVES:

 Packaging practices
 Packaging materials
 Characteristics of sacks
 Labelling

PACKAGING PRACTICES:

A simple field packing station can be constructed from wooden poles and a sheet of
polyethylene. Thatch over the roof will provide shade and keep the station cool. The structure
should be oriented so that the roof overhang keeps out the majority of the sun's rays.

Hands of bananas, after undergoing washing to remove latex and perhaps spraying with
fungicides, are typically packed into cardboard containers lined with polyethylene. The
following illustrations depict one method of filling a container with the fruit in order to
ensure less damage during transport. Note that the polyethylene liner is folded up over the
bananas before closing the box.

 Wide, flat medium-to-small hand in middle of compartment

 Medium-length, wide hand on top, crown not touching fruit below
 Medium-to-short length, wide hand, crown not touching fruit below
 One large hand, or two clusters with long fingers

A circular rotating table can be used to pack a variety of crops. The produce is fed in along a
conveyor or if no conveyor is in use, simply put onto the table, where packers select the
produce and fill cartons at their stations. In the illustration below, a discard belt has been
added below the supply belt, allowing easy disposal of culls. Each packer can work
independently, trimming as needed and check weighing cartons on occasion.

PACKAGING CONTAINERS:

There are many types of packing containers. The three containers illustrated below are
constructed from corrugated cardboard. The regular slotted container is fully collapsible and
the most economical.

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Telescopic containers (half or full) have the highest stacking strength and protect against
bulging but are more costly.

The container known as a Bliss box has very strong corners, but is not collapsible.

Sacks are often used to package produce, since they tend to be inexpensive and readily
available. The following table provides some information regarding the characteristics of
sacks.

Sack Tearing Impact Protection against Contamination Notes

types and Moisture Insect
snagging absorption invasion

Jute Good Good None None Poor, also causeBio-deterioration.

contamination byInsect harbourage.
sack fibres Odour retention.
Cotton Fair Fair None None Fair High re-use value.
Woven Fair-Good Good None Some Fair Badly affected by
plastics protection (if ultra-violet light.
closely Difficult to stitch.
woven)
Paper Poor Fair- Good - Some Good Consistent quality.
Poor WFP protection, Good print.
multiwall sacks better if
have plastic treated.
liners.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SACKS AS PACKAGING UNIT:

Paper or cloth sacks can be easily closed using a length of strong wire and twisting tool.

The table below provides examples of some types of typical mechanical damage and their
effect on packaging containers.

Type of damage Container Result Important

factors
Impact Sacks - woven Splitting of seams and Seam strength
damage and paper material
through dropping causing leaking and spillage loss.
Fibreboard Splitting of seams, opening of flaps Bursting strength
boxes causing loss of containment function. Closure method
Distortion of shape reducing stacking
ability.
Wooden cases Fracture of joints, loss of containment Fastenings
function. Wood toughness
Cans Denting, rim damage. Splitting of
and seams and closures causing loss of
drums containment and spoilage of contents.
Plastic bottles Splitting or shattering causes loss of Material
contents. grade
Wall thickness
Compression Fibreboard Distortion of shape, seam splitting Box compression
damage boxes causing loss of containment strength
through high and splitting
120 of inner cartons, bags,
stacking and
 foil wrappings.
Plastic bottles Distortion, collapse and sometimes Design, material,
splitting, causing loss of contents. wall thickness
Vibration Woven sacks Sifting out of contents. Closeness
of
weave
Corrugated Become compressed and lose their Box compression
fibreboard cushioning qualities. Contents more strength
cases prone to impact damage.
Snagging, Sacks - woven Loss of containment function - spillage Tear strength
tearing, and paper (more severe with paper sacks).
hook damage Tins Punctured, loss of contents. Metal thickness
Below are a variety of commonly used fibreboard containers.

 One piece box

 Two-piece box with cover
 Bliss-style box
 Full telescoping box
 One-piece telescoping box
 One-piece tuck-in cover box
 Self-locking tray
 Interlocking box

Shipping containers can be designed and made by the user from fibreboard in any size and
shape desired. Three types of joints are commonly used to construct sturdy boxes.

 Taped joints
 Glued Joints
 Stapled joints

Containers can be constructed from wood and wire, using the general diagrams provided
below. A special closing tool makes bending the wire loops on the crate's lid easier for
packers to do. Wire bound crates are used for many commodities including melons, beans,
eggplant, greens, peppers, squash and citrus fruits.

A wooden lug is the typical packing container for table grapes. This container is very sturdy
and maintains its stacking strength over long periods of time at high relative humidity. Rigid
plastic containers are also widely used.

A paper liner is folded over the grapes before the top is nailed closed. The liner protects the
produce from dust and water condensation. If a pad containing sulfur dioxide can be enclosed
with the grapes within a plastic liner as a treatment to control decay. Most commodities other
than table grapes can be damaged (bleached) by sulfur dioxide treatments.

Rigid plastic or wooden containers are also used extensively for asparagus. The trimmed
spears are packed upright in containers that provide for a large amount of ventilation.

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Containers for cut flowers are often long and narrow, of full telescopic design with vents at
both ends to facilitate forced-air cooling. The total vent area should be 5% of the total box
surface area. A closable flap can help maintain cool temperatures if boxes are temporarily
delayed in transport or storage in an uncontrolled temperature environment.

A simple wooden tray with raised corners is stackable and allows plenty of ventilation for
fragile crops such as ripe tomatoes.

Adding a fibre board divider to a carton will increase stacking strength. The use of dividers
is common with heavy crops such as melons. The dividers also prevent melons from vibrating
against one another during handling and transport. Wooden inserts, or fibreboard folded into
triangles and placed in all four corners can be especially useful when a carton needs
strengthening.When locally made containers have sharp edges or rough inner surfaces, a
simple, inexpensive inner made from fibreboard can be used to protect produce from damage
during handling.

If large bags or baskets must be used for bulk packaging of fruits or vegetables, the use of a
simple vent can help reduce the build up of heat as the product respires. In the illustration
below, a tube of woven bamboo (about one meter long) is used to vent a large bag of chili
peppers.

Thin paper or plastic sleeves are a useful material for protecting cut flowers from damage
during handling and transport. In the illustration below, a packer is pulling a sleeve up over a
bunch of flowers before packing the flowers into a vented fibreboard carton. The sleeves both
provide protection and help keep the bunch of flowers separate inside the box.

LABELLING:

Labelling packages helps handlers to keep track of the produce as it moves through the
postharvest system, and assists wholesalers and retailers in using proper practices. Labels can
be pre printed on fibreboard boxes, or glued, stamped or stenciled on to containers. Brand
labelling packages can aid in advertising for the product's producer, packer and/or shippers.
Some shippers also provide brochures detailing storage methods or recipes for consumers.

Labelling of consumer packages is mandatory under FDA regulations. Labels must contain
the name of the product, net weight, and name and address of the producer, packer or
distributor.

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 DEVELOPMENT OF BAKERY PRODUCTS II

Baking process of cooking by dry heat, especially in some kind of oven. It is probably the
oldest cooking method. Bakery products, which include bread, rolls, cookies, pies, pastries,
and muffins, are usually prepared from flour or meal derived from some form of grain.

Baking, particularly the baking of bread, is one of the oldest of human activities – indeed one
of the oldest surviving papyri appears to be a set of instructions for making bread.
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
Bakery it provide various nutritional aspects like it provide many calories, in the form of fat,
protein and carbohydrate, etc.
Confectionary provide Energy carbohydrates, sugars, Dietary fibres, Fat, saturated, Vitamin
C, Calcium, Iron, and Sodium.
Nutritional consideration in formulation of bakery product development in bakery
technology- biscuits based on composite flour, biscuits with different flavours, special
biscuits vitamin fortified, high fibre, low sugar and fat biscuits.
RAW MATERIALS
The raw materials can be divided into primary and secondary raw materials.
Primary Raw Materials
Primary raw materials are absolutely necessary ingredients. Without those materials it is not
possible to produce good quality products.
1. Flour
2. Yeast
3. Salt
4. Water

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Secondary Raw Materials
Secondary raw materials are materials which improve the dough or final product in one way
or another.
1. Fats, improvers including emulsifiers.
2. Sugar
3. Milk Products
4. Malt Products
In general the quality improvements are
 A better taste.
 An increased softness.
 A bigger volume.
 A better internal structure.
ADDITIONAL INGREDIENTS
1. Spices
The spices are used in comparatively small quantities in the baked products. These are quite
important ingredients-even indispensable, as their presence, even though in small quantities
does improve the eating qualities of the products as well as the physical characteristics.
2. Flavouring
Flavour may be defined as the sensation of smell and taste mingled. Flavour is an important
ingredient in a sweet goods formula. Flavour is really the ingredient which helps the baker to
add a uniqueness to his product. Appearance may be an eye-catching factor in the first sale of
any baked product but flavour holds the key to all subsequent sales. The general accepted
components of taste are: ―Sweetness, sourness, saltiness and bitterness.
There are Natural and Synthetic flavours.

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3. Nuts and Fruits
A variety of dried and preserved fruits and nuts can be used in baked products to produce
different types of flavours and finishes. They are Nuts, Dried fruits, Currants, Sultanas,
Raisins, Dates, Sugar preserved Fruits and Peels, Almonds, etc.
4. Food Colours
The use of colour is important as the use of flavour.

 To supplement deficiencies in colour, e.g. yellow colour is used to conceal the lack of
butter and eggs in a dough.
 To increase the eye appeal and to complement a definite flavour.
 To introduce varieties and interest to decorated products.
PRODUCTS BAKED IN INCUBATION CENTRE AT IICPT
1. PLAIN CAKE
Materials Required
1. Whole egg (3 nos.)
2. Sugar (125 g)
3. Maida (125 g)
4. Baking Powder (2 g)
5. Cake Improver (8 g)
6. Vanilla essence (10 g)
7. Water (25 g )
8. Vegetable oil (25 g)

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Method
Beat eggs using planetary mixer for 10 minutes. Then add sugar slowly followed by the
addition of water, vegetable oil and cake gel. Then Maida and baking powder was added
followed by addition of vanilla essence.
Then the mix was transferred to mold and baked.

2. BROWNIE
Materials Required
1. Butter (115 g)
2. Egg (2 nos.)
3. Sugar (200 g)
4. Flour (60 g)
5. Cocoa Powder (30 g)
6. Vanilla essence (2 g)
7. Baking powder (2 g)
8. Salt (2 g)

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Method
Beat eggs first, followed by addition of maida, cocoa powder, baking powder, salt, vanilla
essence. Mix everything and finally add 115ml of liquid butter.
Transfer the mix to tray and bake at 160°C for 20 minutes.

OBJECTIVES
We got to know about
 The history of bakery products.
 The raw materials required for baking.
 The techniques to be followed to produce better quality product.
 Additional ingredients added which will increase the appearance and taste.
 Finally we prepared plain cake and brownie in our incubation centre at IICPT.

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 FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN MANAGEMENT AND FOOD INDUSTRY
LOGISTICS
INTRODUCTION:
The supply chain encompasses all activities involved in the transformation of goods from the
raw material stage to the final stage, when the goods and services reach the end customer.
Supply chain management involves planning, design and control of flow of material,
information and finance along the supply chain to deliver superior value to the end customer
in an effective and efficient manner.
OBJECTIVES:
 The objective of every supply chain should be to maximize the overall value
generated. The value a supply chain generates is the difference between what the final
product is worth to the customer and the costs the supply chain incurs in filling the
customer’s request.

 Supply chain profitability is the difference between the revenue generated from the
customer and the overall cost across the supply chain. The higher the supply chain
profitability, the more successful is the supply chain.

IMPORTANCE OF SUPPLY CHAIN DECISION:

 Helps in achieving success – Companies being a leader at using supply chain design,
planning and operation help in achieving success.

 Effective flow of goods and information – Companies like Walmart who have
invested heavily in transportation and information infrastructure help in achieving
effective flow of goods and information.

 Reduces the level of Inventory with the manufacturer – Dell centralizes

manufacturing and inventories in a few locations and postpones final assembly until
orders arrive. Thus, Dell is able to provide a large variety of PC configurations while
keeping very low levels of inventory.

 Improved match between supply and demand – To improve the match between
supply and demand, Dell makes an active effort to steer customers in real time, on the
phone or via the internet, toward PC configurations that can be built given the
components available.

 Reason for company’s success – For the Companies like Dell, Toyota etc., the supply
chain design, and its management of product, information and cash flows play a key
role in the company’s success.

DECISION PHASES IN SUPPLY CHAIN:

 Supply Chain Strategy or Design
 Supply Chain Planning

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PROCESS VIEW:
A supply chain is a sequence of processes and flows that take place within and between
different stages and combine to fill a customer need for a product. There are two different
ways to view the processes performed in a supply chain.
 Cycle View – The processes in a supply chain are divided into a series of cycles, each
performed at the interface between two successive stages of a supply chain.

 Push/Pull View – Pull processes are initiated in response to a customer order, whereas
push processes are initiated and performed in anticipation of customer orders.

All supply chain processes can be broken down into four process cycles:
 Customer order cycle

 Replenishment cycle

 Manufacturing cycle

 Procurement cycle

Each cycle occurs at the interface between two successive stages of the supply chain
COMPANY’S COMPETITIVE STRATEDGY :
A company’s competitive strategy defines, relative to its competitors, the set of customer
needs that it seeks to satisfy through its products and services. For eg. Wal Mart aims to
provide high availability of a variety of products of reasonable quality at low prices. Most
products sold at Wal Mart are common-place and can be purchased elsewhere. What Wal
Mart provides is a low price and product availability.
COMPANY’VALUE CHAIN:
 It begins with new product development, which creates specifications for the product.

 Marketing and sales generate demand by publicizing the customer priorities that the
products and services will satisfy.

 Marketing also brings customer input back to new product development.

 Using new product specifications, operations transforms inputs to outputs to create the
product.

 Distribution either takes the product to the customer or brings the customer to the
product.

 Service responds to customer requests during or after the sale.

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SCM GOALS:
Efficient supply chain management must result in tangible business improvements. It is
characterized by a sharp focus on
 Revenue growth
 Better asset utilization
 Cost reduction.

OPPURTUNITIES ENABLED BY SCM:

Proper implementation of SCM helps to use the following strategic areas to their full
advantage:
Fulfillment:-
 Ensure the right quantity at the right time.

 It makes sure that the right quantities are ordered.

Logistics:
 Keep the cost of transporting materials as low as possible consistent with safe and
reliable delivery.

 Constant contact with its distribution team.

Production:
 Ensure production lines function smoothly.

Reduced Cost of
 Inventory carrying cost
 Internal and external failure cost
 Purchase cost

Revenue & Profit

 No Sales are lost and flexible to respond unforeseen changes

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 MAP AND CAS IN FOOD PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION:
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is defined as ‘the packaging of a perishable product
in an atmosphere which has been modified so that its composition is other than that of air’
(Hintlian & Hotchkiss, 1986). Whereas con-trolled atmosphere storage (CAS) involves
maintaining a fixed concentration of gases surrounding the product by careful monitoring and
addition of gases, the gaseous composition of fresh MAP foods is constantly changing due to
chemical reactions and microbial activity. Gas exchange between the pack head-space and the
external environment may also occur as a result of permeation across the package material.

The normal gaseous composition of air is nitrogen (N2) 78.08% (volume per volume will be used
throughout this chapter), oxygen (O2) 20.96% and carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03%, together with variable
concentrations of water vapour and traces of inert or noble gases.
OBJECTIVES:
 Gases used in MAP
 Effects of gases
 Machines used in MAP
GASES USED IN MAP:

The three main gases used in MAP are O2, CO2 and N2. The choice of gas is totally dependent upon the
food product being packed. Used singly or in combination, these gases are commonly used to
balance safe shelf life extension with optimal organoleptic properties of the food.
CARBON DI OXIDE:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colourless gas with a slight pungent odour at very high concentrations. It is an
asphyxiant and slightly corrosive in the presence of moisture. CO2 dissolves readily in water (1.57gkg−1 at
100kPa, 20°C) to produce carbonic acid (H2CO3) that increases the acidity of the solution and
reduces the pH.

OXYGEN:

Oxygen (O2) is a colourless, odourless gas that is highly reactive and supports combustion. It has a low
solubility in water (0.040 g kg−1 at 100 kPa, 20°C). Oxygen promotes several types of
deteriorative reactions in foods including fat oxidation, browning reactions and pigment
oxidation. Most of the common spoilage bacteria and fungi require O2 for growth.

NITROGEN:

Nitrogen (N2) is a relatively un-reactive gas with no odour, taste or colour. It has a lower density than
air, non-flammable and has a low solubility in water (0.018 g kg−1 at 100 kPa, 20°C) and
other food constituents. Nitrogen does not support the growth of aerobic microbes and
therefore inhibits the growth of aerobic spoilage but does not prevent the growth of
anaerobic bacteria. The low solubility of N2 in foods can be used to prevent pack collapse by
including sufficient N2 in the gas mix to balance the volume decrease due to CO2 going into solution.

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CARBON MONOXIDE:
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas that is highly reactive and
very flammable. It has a low solubility in water but is relatively soluble in some organic
solvents.

INERT GAS:

The noble gases are a family of elements characterised by their lack of reactivity and include
helium (He), argon (Ar), xenon (Xe) and neon (Ne). These gases are being used in a number
of food applications now, e.g. potato-based snack products. While from a scientific
perspective it is difficult to see how the use of noble gases would offer any preservation
advantages compared with N2 they are nevertheless being used. This would suggest that there may be, as
yet unpublished, advantages for their use.

EFFECTS OF GASEOUS ENVIRONMENT ON THE ACTIVITY OF BACTERIA,

MOULD AND YEAST:

EFFECTS OF OXYGEN:
Group Spoilage organisms Pathogens

Aerobes Micrococcus sp. Bacillus cereus

Yersinia
Moulds e.g. Botrytis cinerea enterocolitica
Vibrio
Pseudomonas sp. parahaemolyticu
s
Camplobacter jejuni
Listeria
Microaerophiles Lactobacillus sp. monocytogenes
Aeromonas
Bacillus spp. hydrophilia
Enterobacteriaceae Escherichia coli
Facultative anaerobes Brocothrix thermosphacta Salmonella spp.
Shewanella putrefaciens Staphylococcus spp.
Yeasts Vibrio sp.
Clostridium
Anaerobes Clostridium sporogenes perfringens
Clostridium tyrobutyricum Clostridium botulinum

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EFFECTS OF CARBONDIOXIDE:
Growth is stimulated
CO2 has little or no by

Inhibited by CO2
effect on growth CO2
Pseudomonas spp. Enterococcus spp. Lactobacillus spp.
Clostridium
Aeromonas spp. Brochothrix spp. botulinum*
Bacillus spp. Lactobacillus spp.
Moulds including Botrytis cinerea Clostridium spp.
Enterobacteriaceae including E.
Coli Listeria
monocytogenes
Staphylococcus aureus Aeromonas hydrophilia
Yersinia enterocolitica

EFFECTS OF NITROGEN:

Nitrogen is a relatively un-reactive gas. It is used to displace air and, in particular, O2 from MAP. Since air
and consequently O2 have been removed, growth of aerobic spoilage organisms is inhibited or
stopped. It is also used to balance gas pressure inside packs, so as to prevent the collapse of
packs containing high moisture and fat-containing foods, e.g. meat. Because of the solubility of
CO2 in water and fat, these foods tend to absorb CO2 from the pack atmosphere.

PACKAGING MATERIAL:
Flexible and semi-rigid plastics and plastic laminates are the most common materials used for
MAP foods. Plastic materials account for approximately one-third of the total materials
demand for food packaging applications, and their use is forecast to grow.
Plastic packaging materials may consist of a monolayer formed from a single plastic, but
most, if not all, MAP films are multilayer structures formed from several layers of different
plastics. Using coextrusion, lamination or coating technologies, it is possible to combine
different types of plastic to form films, sheets or rigid packs.
Commonly used plastic flexible laminates are produced from polyethylene (PE),
polypropylene (PP), polyamide (nylons), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC) and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH). Rigid and semi-
rigid structures are commonly produced from PP, PET, unplas-ticised PVC and expanded
polystyrene.

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SELECTION OF PACKAGING MATERIAL:
Several factors must be considered when selecting package materials for MAP applications.

FOOD CONTACT APPROVAL:

Packaging materials in contact with food must not transfer components from the packaging to
the food product in amounts that could harm the consumer. In Europe, all food contact
packaging must comply with EC Directives which are derived from the framework directive
89/109/EEC and which includes the plastics directive 90/128/EEC. Suppliers must provide
evidence to demonstrate that migrant levels from plastics packaging into foods are below the
recom-mended levels and that plastic packaging is safe in its intended use.

GAS AND VAPOUR BARRIER:

Packaging materials for MAP must have the required degree of gas and vapour barrier for the
particular food application. Whereas some materials such as glass and metals (provided they
are of sufficient thickness and possess no pores or other imperfections) are a total barrier to
gases and vapours, plastic materials are permeable to varying degrees to gases and vapours.
These molecules are transported across a plastic package material by a mass transfer process
called permeation. Permeation is defined as ‘the diffusional molecular exchange of gases,
vapours or liquid permeants across a plastic material which is devoid of imperfections such as
cracks and perforations’

Molecule sorbs

into packaging polymer Molecule desorbs from packaging polymer

Permeate
molecule
diffuse

High conc low concentration

MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING MACHINES:
CHAMBER MACHINE:

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For low production throughput, chamber machines are sufficient. These are generally used
with pre-formed pouches, though tray machines are available. The filled pack is loaded into
the machine, the chamber closes, a vacuum is pulled on the pack and back flushed with the
modified atmosphere. Heated sealing bars seal the pack, the chamber opens, packs are
removed and the cycle continues. These machines are generally labour intensive and cheap,
with a simple operation but are relatively slow. Some chamber machines can handle large
packages and are suitable for bulk packs.

SNORKEL MACHINE:
Snorkel machines operate without a chamber and use pre-formed bags or pouches. The bags
are filled and positioned in the machine. The snorkel is introduced into the bag, draws a
vacuum and introduces the modified atmosphere. The snorkels withdraw and the bag is heat
sealed. Bag in-box bulk products and retail packs in large MAP master packs can be
produced on these machines.

FORM FILL SEAL TRAY MACHINE:

Form-fill-seal (FFS) machines form pouches from a continuous sheet of roll stock (flow
wrap), or form flexible or semirigid tray systems comprising a thermoformed tray with a heat
sealed lid. FFS machines may be orientated in a vertical plane or a horizontal plane. Flow
wrapping machines are available in both vertical and horizontal formats. The type of format is
dependent on the nature of the food product being packed. FFS machines using pre-formed
trays or producing thermoformed trays are almost exclusively horizontal machines. This
section focuses on horizontal form-fill-seal MAP machines which are used extensively in the
food industry.

PRE FORMED TRAYS:

The alternative to thermoforming the base tray is to use pre-formed trays. These are loaded
manually or automatically by a tray denester into the machine infeed and pass through the
filling, gas flushing and sealing stages as would a thermoformed base tray.

MODIFICATION OF PACK ATMOSPHERE:

MAP machines use mainly one of the two techniques to

modify the pack atmosphere.

GAS FLUSHING:

This method employs a continuous gas stream that flushes air

out from the package prior to sealing. This method is less
effective at flushing air out of the pack, and this results in

135
residual oxygen levels of 2–5%. Gas flushing is therefore not suited for oxygen-sensitive
food products. Generally, gas flush-ing machines have a simple and rapid operation and
therefore a high packing rate.
The evacuation stage – a vacuum is pulled on the pack to remove air. Generally, it is not
possible to achieve a full vacuum, since reduced pres-sures will result in water to boil, at
which point the vacuum cannot be improved. The vacuum achieved is generally between 5
and 10 Torr (1 Torr = 1 mmHg). As a general rule, the cooler and drier the food, the lower the
achievable vacuum.
Gas flushing stage – the pack is flushed with the modified gas mix. The evacuation of air
from the pack results in lower residual oxygen levels than that achieved by gas flushing, and
therefore this method is better suited for packing oxygen-sensitive products.
SEALING:
An effective heat seal is critical to maintaining the quality and safety of the packaged product.
Film factors (thickness and surface treatments) and plastic composition (resin type, molecular
weight distribution and presence of additives) will determine the machine settings for the
sealing operation. The correct combination of time, temperature and pressure of the seal bars
is necessary to produce a good seal. Insufficient dwell time or tempera-ture can result in
ineffective seals that separate at the bond interface. Excessive dwell time or temperature can
result in weakness adjacent to the seal area.
CUTTING:
Packs are discharged as a continuous arrangement of filled and sealed packs from a
thermoform-fill-seal machine, and therefore, the final operation is to separate into individual
packs. This can be carried out by two methods – die cutting and longitudinal and transverse
cutting.

Die cutting is achieved in one operation. A shaped blade is forced through the film which is
clamped in place by a frame assembly. Transverse cutting separates packs into rows and is
carried out by guillotines or punches which are driven through the film that is supported by
anvils. This may be carried out in conjunction with longitudinal cutting where circular knives
cut through the tray flanges parallel to the length of the film.

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 HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER PHENOMENON

The most common processes found in a food processing plant are heating and cooling of
foods. commonly find unit operations such as refrigeration, freezing, thermal sterilization,
drying, and evaporation.Heating and cooling of food products is necessary to prevent
microbial and enzymatic degradation. In addition, desired sensorial properties -color, flavor,
texture are imparted to foods when they are heated or cooled.
The study of heat transfer is important because it provides a basis for understanding how
various food processes operate. We should study the fundamentals of heat
transfer and learn how they are related to the design and operation of food processing
equipment.We will consider basic modes of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and
radiation.

Types of thermal process in the food industry

Thermal processing is ubiquitous in food processing. Many of the commonest food-
processingoperations, such as canning, baking and pasteurisation, rely on heating
For preservation, i.e. to kill bacteria and inactivate enzymes, such as the pasteurisation of
milkand the sterilisation of canned food. Here the aim is to deliver the required microbial kill
withas little damage as possible.
•To develop taste and flavour, such as when cooking meats and vegetables, where in addition
tosterilisation heat is required to carry out physical changes to the food.
•To develop the structure of the material, such as in baking of bread or biscuits, where
heatingacts both to change the starch structure and function and also to develop the bubble
structurewithin the material
There are also processes, such as drying and frying, where heat and mass transfer are
coupled.Many processes were developed empirically, and only after many years have
attempts beenmade to develop an engineering understanding. The consumer desires
minimally processed products that retain nutrition and flavour, display an acceptable shelf
life and are convenient to prepare.

Modes of Heat Transfer

We have reviewed various forms of energy, such as thermal, potential, mechanical, kinetic,
electrical, and nuclear. Our focus in this chapter will be on thermal energy, commonly
137
referred to as heat energy or heat content. Heat energy is simply the sensible and latentforms
of internal energy.

Conductive Heat Transfer

Conduction is the mode of heat transfer in which the transfer of energy takes place at a
molecular level.Thereare two commonly accepted theories that describe conductive heat
transfer. According to one theory, as molecules of a solid material attain additional thermal
energy, they become more energetic and vibrate with increased amplitude of vibration
whileconfined in their lattice. These vibrations are transmitted from one molecule to another
without actual translator motion of the molecules. Heat is thus conducted from regions of
higher temperature to those at lower temperature. The second theory states that conduction
occurs at a molecular level due to the drift of free electrons. These free electrons are prevalent
in metals, and they carry thermal and electrical energy. For this reason, good conductors of
electricity such as silver and copper are also good conductors of thermal energy.

Convective Heat Transfer

When a fluid (liquid or gas) comes into contact with a solid body such as the surface of a
wall, heat exchange will occur between the solid and the fluid whenever there is a
temperature difference between the two. During heating and cooling of gases and liquids the
fluid streams exchange heat with solid surfaces by convection. The magnitude of the fluid
motion plays an important role in convective heat transfer. For example, if air is flowing at a
high velocity past a hot baked potato, the latter will cool
down much faster than if the air velocity was much lower.

Radiation Heat Transfer

Radiation heat transfer occurs between two surfaces by the emission and later absorption of
electromagnetic waves (or photons). In contrast to conduction and convection, radiation
requires no physical medium for its propagation it can even occur in perfect vacuum, moving
at the speed of light, as we experience everyday solar radiation. Liquids are strong absorbers
of radiation. Gases are transparent to radiation, except that some gases absorb radiation of
particular wavelength (for example, ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation). Solids are opaque to
thermal radiation. Therefore, in problems involving thermal radiation with solid materials,
such as with solid foods, our analysis is primarily concerned with the surface of the material.

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This is in contrast to microwave and radio frequency radiation, where the wave penetration
into a solid object is significant.

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 IPM FOR STORED PRODUCTS

• The first step in managing insect pests of food stocks is to inspect them regularly to
check their cSondition. If pests are found and considered to pose a risk – bearing in
mind that not all insects in stores are pests – pest control operations may be needed.
The principal means of pest control in stored foods is by fumigation. The process of
holding the commodity with a poisonous gas (phosphine) - to kill any infesting
organisms.Contact insecticides may also be used to support fumigation. A element in
pest management is to ensure that stores are well cleaned and well maintained; such
stores require less expenditure on costly pest control procedures.The fumigant gases
which are commonly used: methyl bromide & phosphine. Methyl bromide - very
effective fumigant -somewhat more dangerous.The World Food Programme(WFP) a
UN Agency has a policy not to use methyl bromide - when released into atmosphere,
it depletes stratospheric ozone. WFP relies on phosphine alone.To hold phosphine
with the commodity long enough to kill pests, the commodity must be in a gas-tight
enclosure. Most commodities are in bags - are placed under gas-proof sheets held
down at the edges by flexible, sand-filled tubes called sand snakes

Fumigation is also possible in other situations such as in silos, rail cars, transport
containers, barges and ships.Phosphine penetrates easily into a commodity so that a
good fumigation will kill 100% of the pests under the gas-proof sheet.

However, once the phosphine has dispersed, the grain has no protection against re-
infestation unless the gas-proof sheet is left in place to act as a physical barrier.To
slow down the rate at which grain stocks become re-infested, contact insecticides may
be sprayed onto the floor and internal walls of stores as a secondary measure.

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 Insects and mites take up contact insecticides by coming into direct contact with them,
although some insecticides are sufficiently volatile to have effects as vapours, but they
are quite different from fumigants

• Contact insecticides are used:

 When the store is empty - hygiene measure to ensure incoming stock does not
become infested by insects emerging from the cracks and crevices of store
structures

 At the time of fumigation - to ensure that when fumigation sheets are removed
there are no live insects present on the store structure that can re-infest the
stock.

It is recommended that spraying is confined to store surfaces, particularly floors and

internal walls, to prevent insects moving from them to the clean commodity when
stocks enter a store or when fumigation sheets are removed.Insecticide usage in food
aid stores does not involve direct application of insecticide onto stored food.

In some situations contact insecticides may be admixed directly with grain stocks, and
this can be a substitute for fumigation.

For a good fumigation

– Gas retention
– Correct dosage
– Correct length of time
Exposure periods and dosage

Phosphine is most effective as a fumigant when used at low concentrations over long
periods. The exposure period is affected by temperature. The minimum temperature
for the use of phosphine is about 15 °C.At temperatures below 20 °C, long exposure
periods of up to 16 days are recommended.

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 UNIT OPERATIONS IN FOOD PROCESSING

The study of process engineering is an attempt to combine all forms of physical processing
into a small number of basic operations, which are called unit operations. Food processes may
seem bewildering in their diversity, but careful analysis will show that these complicated and
differing processes can be broken down into a small number of unit operations. For example,
consider heating of which innumerable instances occur in every food industry. There are
many reasons for heating and cooling - for example, the baking of bread, the freezing of
meat, the tempering of oils.

But in process engineering, the prime considerations are firstly, the extent of the heating or
cooling that is required and secondly, the conditions under which this must be accomplished.
Thus, this physical process qualifies to be called a unit operation. It is called 'heat transfer'.

The essential concept is therefore to divide physical food processes into basic unit operations,
each of which stands alone and depends on coherent physical principles. For example, heat
transfer is a unit operation and the fundamental physical principle underlying it is that heat
energy will be transferred spontaneously from hotter to colder bodies

Because of the dependence of the unit operation on a physical principle, or a small group of
associated principles, quantitative relationships in the form of mathematical equations can be
built to describe them. The equations can be used to follow what is happening in the process,
and to control and modify the process if required.

Important unit operations in the food industry are fluid flow, heat transfer, drying,
evaporation, contact equilibrium processes (which include distillation, extraction, gas
absorption, crystallization, and membrane processes), mechanical separations (which include
filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation and sieving), size reduction and mixing.

These unit operations, and in particular the basic principles on which they depend, are the
subject of this book, rather than the equipment used or the materials being processed.

Two very important laws which all unit operations obey are the laws of conservation of mass
and energy
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143
 RHEOLOGICAL STUDIES OF FOOD PRODUCTS

INTRODUCTION
Rheology is the science of flow and deformation of matter and describes the
interrelationbetween force, deformation and time. The term comes from Greek rheosmeaning
to flow.Rheology is applicable to all materials, from gases to solids. The science of rheology
is onlyabout 70 years of age. It was founded by two scientists meeting in the late 1920s and
finding out they have the same need for describing fluid flow properties. The scientists were
Professor Marcus Reiner and Professor Eugene Bingham. The Greek philosopher Heraclitus
described rheology as pantarei- everything flows. Translated into rheological terms by
Marcus Reiner; this means everything will flow if you just wait long enough.Fluid rheology
is used to describe the consistency of different products, normally by the two components:
1) viscosity
2) elasticity.

By viscosity is usually meant resistance to flow or thickness and by elasticity usually

stickiness or structure. Rheological relationships help us to understand the fluids we are
working with so that we can either know how they are behaving or force them to behave
according to our needs. Once a correlation has been developed between rheological data and
product behaviour, the procedure can then be reversed and rheological data may be used to
predict performance and behaviour.

Food rheology
Described as the study of the deformation and flow of the raw materials, the intermediate
products and the final products of the food industry. The rheological property of a food
system is dependent on the composition or the ingredients of the system. There arenumerous
areas where rheological data are needed in the food industry:
a.Process engineering calculations involving a wide range of equipment such as
pipelines, pumps, extruders, mixers, coaters, heat exchangers, homogenizers, and on
line viscometers;
b. Determining ingredient functionality in product development;
c. Intermediate or final product quality control;
d. Shelf life testing;
e.Characterizing ingredients and final products, as well as for predicting product

144
performance and consumer acceptance.
f. Evaluation of food texture by correlation to sensory data;
g. Analysis of rheological equations of state or constituent equations.
h. They are also a way to predict and control a host of product properties, end use
performance and material behaviour as well as sensory analysis and quality control of
foods.

Why Make Rheological Measurements?

Anyone beginning the process of learning to think “Rheologically” must first ask the
question,
“Why should I make a rheological measurement?” The answer lies in the experiences of
thousands of people who have made such measurements, showing that, much useful
behavioural and predictive information for various products can be obtained, as well as
knowledge of the effects of processing, formulation changes, aging phenomena, etc.
Fundamental rheological properties are independent of the instru-ment on which they are
measured so different instruments will yieldthe same results. This is an ideal concept and
different instrumentsrarely yield identical results; however, the idea is one which distin-
guishes true rheological material properties from subjective (empiricaland generally
instrument dependent, though frequently useful)material characterizations. Examples of
instruments giving subjectiveresults include the following (Bourne, 1982): Farinograph,
Mixograph,Extensograph, Viscoamlyograph, and the BostwickConsistometer.
Empirical testing devices and methods, including Texture

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146
 BAKERY CONFECTIONERY

The term ‘baked products’ is applied to a wide range of food products,including breads,
cakes, pastries, cookies and crackers and many other products, and it can be difficult to
identify a common thread linking the members of such a diverse group. The most commonly-
identified link is that they all use recipes that are based on wheat flour. This definition,
though, would need to be expanded to include baked goods such as gluten-free products, used
by people with coeliac digestive disorders, or rye bread, which are still considered to be
baked products even though they are based on cereals other than wheat. However, the same
leniency of definition could hardly be extended to include meringues, which contain no
cereal-based material at all, let alone wheat flour, their main components being sugar and egg
white. It may be more appropriate to consider that baked products are those products which
are manufactured in a bakery, that is the place of manufacture defines the product rather than
some ingredient, recipe or process feature. One view is that baked products should be defined
as having undergone heat processing – baking – which causes changes in both form and
structure. This is certainly true for the many different base products manufactured in bakeries.
Some exceptions to this definition might include Chinese steamed breads, some steamed
puddings and doughnuts, which are fried, though all of these products do undergo a heat-
conversion process. By using the presence of a heat-processing
step to characterise bakery goods we can capture some composite products, such as fruit and
meat pies, since the fillings in such products do undergo physical and chemical changes as the
result of the input of heat. Not captured in the heat-processed definition of those products
made in bakeries would be the fillings and toppings that are applied or used after baking. In
this category will fall creams and icings, eventhough they will become part of the product
offered in the shop or store.

The weakness of defining baked products as being those which have undergone a heat-
processing step is that the same definition could be applied to any form of cooked product.
Physical and chemical structures in all food are changed through heating, albeit in many cases
adversely. In many people’s minds there is no distinction between the ‘baking’ of bread and
the ‘cooking’ of bread, though bakers would be loath to accept that bread is ‘cooked’. If we
are to characterise or define baked products then it will have to be using a composite
definition, perhaps something like:

147
Baked products are foods manufactured from recipes largely based on or
containing significant quantities of wheat or other cereal flours which are
blended with other ingredients, are formed into distinctive shapes and
undergo a heat-processing step which involves the removal of moisture
in an oven located in a bakery.

These thoughts illustrate the problems of defining baked products and also show the
arbitrariness of the definitions that are commonly applied to the concepts of both a bakery and
baked products. They also suggest that, to some extent, definitions of baked products are of
limited value since they all involve arbitrary judgments and so will be subject to individual
interpretation. The arbitrary nature of these judgementsalso affects published works on bakery
products, and this book will be no exception. However, our aim is to offer alternative ways of
defining bakery products and to suggest new rulesets for controlling particular product
characteristics. In doing so, we hope to encourage new ways of looking at baking, which will
provide a basis for innovation,new product development, quality optimisation and problem
solving. We do not propose that we have all of the answers to the questions which may be
posed by the reader; we can only provide you with the stimulus and some of the means to
improve existing products and develop new ones.

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 GM AND ORGANIC FOODS
INTRODUCTION:

In Europe, adoption of the principle of informed consumer choice has led to increasingly
comprehensive measures, initially voluntary and then by legislation, to provide distinctive
labelling of genetically modified (GM) foods. In contrast, the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) in the USA has, despite increasing pressure, refused to require distinctive labelling
where GM foods are substantially equivalent to the non-GM versions. Consideration of the
development and current position of distinctive labelling of GM foods in this section is
therefore based on European experience and is largely illustrated by the UK experience.

Three products from genetically modified plants have been available in recent years in the
UK. The first is a specific variety of tomato pure´e produced in California that has been sold
as an own-label product in two retailers. This is the only genetically modified whole food
product to be sold in the UK, and it was introduced in 1996. Though not legally required,
clear labelling was provided on the front of the product explaining that it was produced from
genetically modified tomatoes. The two other introductions have been Round-up Ready Soya
and Bt Maize. These are both varieties of commodity crops that are imported into the UK.

Initial requirements for labelling genetically modified foods or ingredients produced from
them were set out in the Novel Foods Regulations. The approach adopted was that of
substantial equivalence. However, because of the potential for adverse consumer reaction
within the EU to the introduction of genetically modified commodity crops, more detailed
requirements for labelling (1139/98) were developed. Round-up Ready Soya and Bt Maize
were introduced before the EU Labelling Regulations (1139/98) were agreed. The UK food
industry therefore adopted voluntary labelling with the aim of meeting consumer demands for
labelling.

INDUSTRIES RESPONSIBILITY:
Labelling genetically modified foods and ingredients was addressed in the EU Novel Foods
and Novel Food Ingredients Regulation (258/97) that came into force in May 1997. The
principle of labelling was on the basis of substantial equivalence, a tool that has been used
extensively in the safety assessment of GM foods. This approach was developed by the World
Health Organization (WHO) and Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD) and involves any comparison of a GM food with its conventional counterpart; the
differences between them becomes the subsequent focus of the safety assessment.
Article 8 of the Novel Foods Regulation requires labelling where, in comparison to an
existing, equivalent food:
 foods and food ingredients derived from genetically modified plants or organisms
(GMOs) are no longer equivalent
 additional material is present that may have adverse health implications (e.g.
allergens)
 additional material is present that may give rise to ethical concerns, or
 foods contain or consist of GMOs.
Round-up Ready Soya and Bt Maize were introduced to the food supply in 1997. As they
were approved before the Novel Foods Regulation came into force, a separate regulation
(1813/97) was issued bringing them within the scope of 258/97. There was initially no legal
requirement to label ingredients from these two crops. However, because of the potential for

149
adverse consumer reaction within the EU to the introduction of GM soya and maize,
voluntary labelling proposals were developed by a number of Member States. It was
recognised that this could present a barrier to trade. The Commission therefore agreed to
adopt more detailed requirements for labelling. Commission proposals for detailed labelling
rules for Round-up Ready Soya and Bt Maize were issued in Autumn 1997.

Voluntary labelling in the UK

The UK food industry agreed guidelines for the voluntary labelling of products in November
1997. IGD Voluntary Guidelines for Communication and Labelling formed the basis of
labelling. The principle of the guidelines was to label products that contained modified DNA,
whether the DNA was active (intact) or not. Labelling commenced in January 1998, when the
proportion of Round-up Ready Soya grown in the United States had increased to 15%.

Presenting information on labels – Labelling Regulation 1139/98

Regulation 1139/982 was published in May 1998 and came into force in the following
September. In developing the regulation it was recognised that the basis of labeling needs to
be meaningful to consumers. In view of this, labelling is based on the principle that the
presence of genetically modified DNA renders foods and food ingredients from genetically
modified soya and maize ‘no longer equivalent’ to those from traditional crops. In practice,
this regulation has signalled a move away from the approach of substantial equivalence.
Where modified DNA has been destroyed by processing, the foods and food ingredients are
considered equivalent unless modified protein is present, and in this case do not require
labelling. The labelling regulation requires that:
 ingredients containing modified DNA should be labelled with the wording ‘produced
from genetically modified soya/maize’
 the wording should be displayed either in brackets after the ingredient in the
ingredients list, or as a footnote indicated by an asterisk
 where an ingredient is already listed as being produced from soya or maize the
footnote can be abbreviated to ‘genetically modified’; the asterisk should be directly
attached to the word ‘soya’ or ‘maize’
 products should be labelled even if they do not have an ingredients list
 labelling applies to compound ingredients that are less than 25% of the final product
 claims that a product is made from non-genetically modified ingredients can be made
on a voluntary basis.

Labelling does not apply to food additives, flavourings or extraction solvents as these are
considered under other legislation. The draft proposals included the provision for ‘may
contain’ labelling, particularly with reference to commodity crops. However, the regulation
does not allow this form of labelling. The Commission opted instead to investigate the
concept of a threshold level to allow for accidental mixing of GM crops with segregated
supplies of traditional non-GM crops. The assumption is that the labelling rules for these two
crops will form the basis for future genetically modified crops that are approved. In the UK,
the enabling regulations also include the provision for labelling to apply to foods sold loose,
and foods sold through the food service sector. This came into force on 19 September 1999.
Consumers can be informed that products contain genetically modified soya or maize through
declarations on menus, notices or tickets, or the information can be given verbally by staff
provided that there is a system in place to keep staff informed of product contents.

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 Irradiated foods and ingredients
Irradiation of food was first suggested as long ago as the early 1900s. However, it was not
until the 1950s that the increased availability of suitable isotopes, together with President D.
Eisenhower’s ‘Atoms for Peace’ programme, triggered major international collaborations on
food irradiation. Safety became a key issue in these programmes following the classification
of food irradiation as a food additive by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA). A
major 24-country International Programme in the Field of Food Irradiation (IFIP) commenced
in 1970, supported by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO),
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the Organisation for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD), and advised by the World Health Organisation
(WHO). Data from this and related programmes formed the basis of the conclusions of
FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committees on the Wholesomeness of Irradiated Food (JECFI) in
1976 and 1980. JECFI concluded that ‘the irradiation of any food up to an overall average
dose of 10 kilogray (kGy) presents no toxicological hazard; hence, toxicological testing of
foods so treated is no longer required and introduces no special nutritional or microbiological
problems. This was reaffirmed by a JECFI that met in 1992, and led to the Codex
Alimentarius Commission adopting the Codex General Standard for Irradiated Foods and the
Recommended International Code of Practice for the Operation of Radiation Facilities for the
Treatment of Food in 1983. In 1994, the WHO stated that ‘irradiated food produced in
accordance with good manufacturing practice can be considered safe and nutritionally
adequate’. In 1997, a joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Study Group examined toxicological,
nutritional, microbiological, and radiation chemical data and further concluded that there is no
need for an upper dose limit to be imposed for food irradiation. The Study Group
recommended that steps be taken to establish the technological guidelines implied by these
conclusions and to incorporate them in Codex Alimentarius standards.

The use of irradiation

Ionizing radiations employed for food processing include γ-radiation from the radioactive
isotope Co60, β-radiation (electrons) with a maximum energy of 10 Mev (million electron
volts) from machine sources and, to a much lesser extent, X-rays with a maximum energy of
5 Mev from machine sources. The absorbed dose of radiation is defined in terms of the
energy absorbed by the substance irradiated. The SI unit of dose is the gray (Gy), which is 1
joule kg-1. Food irradiation doses are generally quoted in kilograys (kGy). The gray replaces
the previous unit, the rad.

1Gy = 100 rad

1 kGy = 100 krad
10 kGy = 1 Mrad (1
million rad)

The dose received varies within a product depending on its geometry and the particular
processing technique. Dose uniformity is defined as the ratio of maximum to minimum
absorbed dose. The ratio Dmax/Dmin is termed the ‘overdose ratio.’ A ratio of 1.5 is a typical.
Technological objectives of food irradiation include improvement of safety, particularly of
meat and poultry and some seafoods, reduction of spoilage, disinfestation, and delay of
ripening of fruits and vegetables.

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The legal background
Following the various JECFI meetings, their conclusions and recommendations were used to
derive an international standard by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) of the joint
FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The CAC adopted a ‘Codex General Standard for
Irradiated Foods’ and a ‘Recommended International Code of Practice for Operation of
Radiation Facilities used for Treatment of Food’. The Codex Standard was recommended by
the CAC to all its 130 or so member countries for acceptance in 1984. The Standard provided
the stimulus for national authorities to introduce regulations for food irradiation. Beginning in
the early 1980s, a number of advanced countries introduced regulations following the
principles of the Codex Standard, including Canada, Denmark, France, The Netherlands, the
United Kingdom and the United States. Likewise, some developing countries introduced early
legislation to allow and control food irradiation, again based predominantly on the Codex
Standard, e.g. Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, PR China, India, Republic of Korea, Thailand, and
others. Most countries’ national legislation requires the licensing of food irradiation facilities
with associated examination and auditing to ensure proper controls and record-keeping. Most
countries that allow food irradiation approve it on a product-by-product or food category-by-
food category basis following demonstration of a clear technological need.

General labelling requirements

In 1981 the joint FAO/IAEA/WHO Expert Committee
recommended that it was not necessary, on scientific grounds,
to label irradiated foods. However, it is widely recognized in
most countries that labelling is necessary in order to inform
the consumer if a product has been irradiated, and to indicate
the purpose. Consequently, in those countries that allow food
irradiation, it has become common to include some form of

152
words such as ‘irradiated’, ‘treated with ionizing radiation’, ‘treated with ionizing energy’,
‘protege par ionisation’, etc. As recommended by IAEA in 1993 the particular form of words
must be displayed prominently and close to the name of the product. Use of the green
‘Radura’ symbol has become recognised internationally and is required, in addition to the
worded statement, in some countries, e.g. the USA, Canada, and The Netherlands. IAEA
recommended that labels on packs of retail foods should contain an additional statement
explaining the specific purpose for which the radiation is applied, for example to ensure
hygienic quality, to extend fresh shelf-life, etc. In some countries, food irradiation was
allowed but, following the original recommendations of the 1981 JECFI, labelling was not
required originally, e.g. in China and South Africa. The framework against which individual
country requirements should be interpreted is the Codex General Standard for Labelling of
Prepackaged Food, adopted in 1991, and quoted from below.

Section 5.2.1 The label of a food which has been treated with ionizing radiation shall carry a
written statement indicating that treatment in close proximity to the name of the food. The
use of the international food irradiation symbol is optional but when it is used, it shall be in
close proximity to the name of the food.

Section 5.2.2 When an irradiated product is used as an ingredient in another food, this shall
be so declared in the list of ingredients.

Section 5.2.3 When a single ingredient product is prepared from a raw material which has
been irradiated, the label of the product shall contain a statement indicating the treatment.

However, an ICGFI Statement on Labelling of Irradiated Foods in 1998 recommended small

changes, namely that:
the term ‘irradiated’ or equivalent wording need not be more prominent but shall not be
less prominent than the ingredient statement. The irradiation statement may also be used to
indicate the benefit of the treatment. Codex should consider the principle that the
irradiated ingredient be so indicated if it amounts to more than some specified proportion
of the product.

ICGFI continues to discuss further modifications, e.g. in 1999, to relax the need for specific
wording by the introduction, within Section 5.2.1, of the words: ‘Any factually correct phrase
indicating the purpose or benefit of the treatment may be included in this statement’. In
Section 5.2.2 (for an irradiated ingredient used in another food): ‘at a level that would require
its unirradiated counterpart to be declared in the list of ingredients, then the modifying term
‘irradiated’ shall be included and shall be displayed at least as prominently as the ingredient
name’. In Section 5.2.3 (for a single ingredient product): ‘that had been irradiated to a dose
higher than is needed for sprout inhibition or insect disinfestation, the label of the product
shall contain a statement’, and: ‘Any factually correct phrase indicating the purpose or benefit
of the treatment may be included in this statement.’

Individual country requirements

Although all based on the Codex Standard, there remain country-by-country variations in the
labelling requirements for irradiated foods, especially for the labelling of foods containing
irradiated ingredients. In the European Union, the two branches of the Community’s
legislative authority (the European Parliament and the European Council) agreed a framework
Directive laying down general provisions for irradiated foods, including labelling, based on
the Codex Standards. The Directive (1999/2/EC) was agreed on 22 February 1999

153
and includes the following labelling requirements, in Article 6: The labelling of foodstuffs
treated with ionizing radiation shall be governed by the following provisions:
1. in the case of products intended for the ultimate consumer and mass caterers:
a. if the products are sold as items, the words ‘irradiated’ or ‘treated with ionising
radiation’ shall appear on the label as provided for in 5(3) of Directive
79/112/EEC. In the case of products sold in bulk, these words shall appear
together with the name of the product on a display or notice above or beside the
container in which the products are placed.
b. if an irradiated product is used as an ingredient, the same words shall accompany
its designation in the list of ingredients. In the case of products sold in bulk, these
words shall appear together with the name of the product on a display notice
above or beside the container in which the products are placed
c. by way of derogation from Article 6(7) of Directive 79/112/EEC, the same words
shall be required in order to indicate the irradiated ingredients used in compound
ingredients in foodstuffs, even if these constitute less than 25% of the finished
product
2. in the case of products not intended for the ultimate consumer and mass caterers:
a. the words provided for in the previous paragraph shall be used to indicate
treatment of both the foods and the ingredients contained in a non-irradiated
foodstuff
b. either the identity and address of the facility which carried out the irradiation or its
reference number as provided for in Article 7 shall be indicated
3. the indication of treatment shall in all cases be given on the documents which
accompany or refer to irradiated foodstuffs’.

However, a number of EU countries continue to ban food irradiation, e.g. Germany, with the
exception that certain spices, radiation-processed in France only, that may be marketed in any
Member State of the EU or European Economic Area, may thereafter be imported into
Germany. In Sweden, irradiation of foodstuffs is prohibited with the exception of spices
labelled in accordance with labelling directive 79/112/EEC. In South Africa, which has a long
history of food irradiation, all containers of irradiated foodstuffs must now be labelled with
the Radura symbol together with one of the words ‘Irradiated’, ‘Radurised’, ‘Bestraal’, or
‘Geraduriseerd’ directly below the symbol. Foodstuffs containing more than 10% of an
irradiated ingredient must be so labelled, though the Radura symbol may be omitted. Where
bulk containers of irradiated foodstuffs are opened at the point of sale, a notice with the
above information must be displayed prominently in immediate proximity to the foodstuff.
Food irradiation is not allowed in Australasia. However, the Australia New Zealand Food
Authority is currently receiving comments from the public, the food industry, and
professional groups in New Zealand regarding a proposed draft standard for foods treated
with irradiation, including requirements for clear labelling.

In the United States, labelling regulations are continuing to evolve, particularly because of
concerns about pathogens such as Escherichia coli O157:H7, as well as Salmonella, and
Listeria monocytogenes. These concerns have encouraged the USDA to allow American
plants to irradiate red meats. Surveys have indicated that about 80% of consumers would be
likely to purchase a food product labelled ‘irradiated to kill harmful bacteria.’ Under the
proposals, the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) suggests that meat products be
labelled with the green Radura symbol and a suitable statement. The symbol must be placed
‘prominently and conspicuously’ in conjunction with the required statement, which must
appear next to the product name. The size of the irradiation disclosure does not have to be

154
larger than the ingredient statement. For multiingredient foods, such as sausage, it is proposed
that an ingredient statement, for ingredient X for example, would read ‘irradiated X’ or ‘X,
treated by irradiation.’ Some level of negative industry reaction to these proposals is likely.

Irradiated ingredients
The Codex recommendations on labelling with respect to irradiated ingredients are given
above. However, the regulations introduced in different countries differ greatly in their
interpretation of the recommendations, particularly regarding the level of ingredient necessary
to require labelling. Some countries simply require labelling if an irradiated ingredient is used
(e.g. Belgium, India, Israel, UK), whereas others require labelling if more than a certain
minimum proportion of irradiated inredients are used (e.g. 2% for spices and seasonings, and
10% for food raw materials in the Czech Republic; 5% in Denmark and Thailand; 10% in
Canada and South Africa; 5% in Chile). The European Directive for irradiated foods includes
the requirement for labelling ‘even when the ingredient constitutes less than 1% of the
finished product’. It is in order to rationalize the situation that the ICGFI is discussing the
introduction of the new phrases into Section 5.2.2 of the Codex General Standard.

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 PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING

INTRODUCTION:

Phytochemicals are bioactive chemicals of plant origin. They are regarded as secondary
metabolites because the plants that manufacture them may have little need for them. They are
naturally synthesized in all parts of the plant body; bark, leaves, stem, root, flower, fruits,
seeds, etc. i.e. any part of the plant body may contain active components. The quantity and
quality of phytochemicals present in plant parts may differ from one part to another. In fact,
there is lack of information on the distribution of the biological activity in different plant
parts essentially related to the difference in distribution of active compounds (or active
principles) which are more frequent in some plant parts than in others.

PHYTOCHEMICAL SCREENING TESTS:

Test for Alkaloids (Wagner’s reagent) A fraction of extract was treated with 3-5drops of
Wagner’s reagent [1.27g of iodine and 2g of potassium iodide in 100ml of water] and
observed for the formation of reddish brown precipitate (or coloration).

Test for Carbohydrates (Molisch’s test) Few drops of Molisch’s reagent were added to 2ml
portion of the various extracts. This was followed by addition of 2ml of conc. H2SO4 down
the side of the test tube. The mixture was then allowed to stand for two-three minutes.
Formation of a red or dull violet colour at the interphase of the two layers was a positive test.

Test for Cardiac glycosides (Keller Kelliani’s test) 5ml of each extract was treated with
2ml of glacial acetic acid in a test tube and a drop of ferric chloride solution was added to it.
This was carefully underlayed with 1ml concentrated sulphuric acid. A brown ring at the
interface indicated the presence of deoxysugar characteristic of cardenolides. A violet ring
may appear below the ring while in the acetic acid layer, a greenish ring may form.

Test for Flavonoids (Alkaline reagent test) 2ml of extracts was treated with few drops of
20% sodium hydroxide solution. Formation of intense yellow colour, which becomes
colourless on addition of dilute hydrochloric acid, indicates the presence of flavonoids.

Test for Phenols (Ferric chloride test) A fraction of the extracts was treated with aqueous
5% ferric chloride and observed for formation of deep blue or black colour.

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Test for Phlobatannins (Precipitate test) Deposition of a red precipitate when 2mls of
extract was boiled with 1ml of 1% aqueous hydrochloric acid was taken as evidence for the
presence of phlobatannins.

Test for Amino acids and Proteins (1% ninhydrin solution in acetone). 2ml of filtrate
was treated with 2-5 drops of ninhydrin solution placed in a boiling water bath for 1-2
minutes and observed for the formation of purple colour.

Test for Saponins (Foam test) To 2mls of extract was added 6ml of water in a test tube. The
mixture was shaken vigorously and observed for the formation of persistent foam that
confirms the presence of saponins.

Test for Sterols (Liebermann-Burchard test) 1ml of extract was treated with drops of
chloroform, acetic anhydride and conc. H2SO4 and observed for the formation of dark pink
or red colour.

Test for Tannins (Braymer’s test) 2mls of extract was treated with 10% alcoholic ferric
chloride solution and observed for formation of blue or greenish colour solution.

Test for Terpenoids (Salkowki’s test) 1ml of chloroform was added to 2ml of each extract
followed by a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid. A reddish brown precipitate produced
immediately indicated the presence of terpenoids.

Test for Quinones A small amount of extract was treated with concentrated HCL and
observed for the formation of yellow precipitate (or colouration).

Test for Oxalate To 3ml portion of extracts were added a few drops of ethanoic acid glacial.
A greenish black colouration indicates presence of oxalates.

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 ADVANCES IN FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES
The general concepts associated with processing of foods to achieve shelf life extension and
preserve quality include (1) addition of heat, (2) removal of heat, (3) removal of moisture,
and (4) packaging of foods to maintain the desirable aspects established through processing
(Heldman & Hartel, 1998).
In recent decades, the food industry has also investigated alternative lethal agents, such as
electric fields, high pressure, irradiation, etc., to control microorganisms. Even though it is
desirable that the preservation method by itself does not cause any damage to the food,
depending upon the intensity of such agents, the quality of the foodmay also be affected.
Since the mechanism of microorganism inactivation by non-thermal lethal agents may be
different from that of heat, it is important to understand the synergy, additive, or antagonistic
effects of sequential or simultaneous combinations of different lethal agents. Irradiation, high-
pressure processing, and pulsed electric field processing are examples of nonthermal
processing methods that may be of commercial interest.

Irradiation
Irradiation is one of the most extensively investigated non-thermal technologies. Ionizing
radiation includes γ-ray and electron beam. During irradiation of foods, ionizing radiation
penetrates a food and energy is absorbed. Absorbed dose of radiation is expressed in grays
(Gy), where 1 Gy is equal to an absorbed energy of 1 J/kg.Milder doses (0.1–3 kGy), called
“radurization,” are used for shelf life extension, control of ripening, and inhibition of
sprouting. Radicidation is carried out to reduce viable non-spore forming pathogenic bacteria,
using a dose between 3 and 10 kGy. Radappertization from 10 kGy to 50 kGy enables
the sterilization of bacterial spores. From its beginning in the 1960s, the symbol Radura has
been used to indicate ionizing radiation treatment.

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Figure: International Radura symbol for irradiation on the packaging of irradiated
foods

High-pressure processing
High-pressure processing, also referred to as “high hydrostatic pressure processing” or “ultra-
high pressure processing,” uses elevated pressures (up to 600 MPa), withor without the
addition of external heat (up to 120 _C), to achieve microbial inactivation or to alter food
attributes (Cheftel, 1995; Farkas & Hoover, 2000). Pressure pasteurization treatment (400–
600 MPa at chilled or ambient conditions), in general, has limited effects on nutrition, color,
and similar quality attributes. Uniform compression heating and expansion cooling on
decompression help to reduce the severity of thermal effects such as quality degradation and
nutritional loss encountered with conventional processing techniques. Summarizes typical
pressure and temperature levels for various food process operations. Examples of high-
pressure pasteurized products commercially available in the US include smoothies,
guacamole, deli meat slices, juices, ready meal components, poultry products, oysters,
ham, fruit juices, and salsa.

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Figure: Different pressure temperature regions yield different processing effects. Inactivation
of vegetative bacteria, yeast, and mold (□), bacterial spores (○), and enzymes (Δ) is also
shown. A filled symbol represents no effect, an open symbol represents inactivation.

Pulsed electric field processing

During pulsed electric field (PEF) processing, a high voltage electrical field (20–70
kV/cm) is applied across the food for a few microseconds. A number of process parameters
including electric field strength, treatment temperature, flow rate or treatment time, pulse
shape,pulse width, frequency, and pulse polarity govern the microbiological safety of the
processed foods. Food composition, pH, and electrical conductivity are parameters of

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importance to PEF processing. During PEF treatment, the temperature of the treated foods
increases due to electrical resistance heating effect. This temperature increase can also
contribute to the inactivation of microorganisms and other food quality attributes. PEF
technology has the potential to pasteurize a variety of liquid foods including fruit juices,
soups, milk, and other beverages.

Ultrasound

Figure: Sonication of wine

High-power ultrasound processing or sonication is another alternative technology that

has shown promise in the food industry (Piyasena et al., 2003), especially for liquid foods, in
inactivating spoilage microorganisms. Ultrasound is a form of energy generated by sound
waves of frequencies above 16 kHz; when these waves propagate through a medium,
compressions and depressions of the medium particles create micro bubbles, which collapse
(cavitation) and result in extreme shear forces that disintegrate biological materials.
Sonication alone is not very efficient in killing bacteria in food, as this would need an
enormous amount of ultrasound energy; however, the use of ultrasound coupled with pressure
and/or heat is promising.
Hurdle technology
Hurdle technology involves a suitable combination of different lethal agents to ensure
microbial safety, quality, and stability of the processed product. Heat, pressure, acidity, water
activity, chemical/natural preservatives, and packaging are examples of hurdles that
can be combined to improve the quality of the final processed product.The hurdle approach
requires
the intensity of individual lethal agents (for example, heat or pressure) to be
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modest, yet is quite effective in controlling microbial risk. Efforts must be made to
understand the potential synergistic, additive or antagonistic effects of combining different
lethal agents during hurdle technology.
Cold plasma
Cold plasma is generated by using electricity and a carrier gas, such as air, oxygen, nitrogen,
or helium; antimicrobial chemical agents are not required. The result is electrical discharges
and subsequent ionization of atmospheric air. The microbial inactivation effect of plasma
treatment can be attributed to the formation of a number of antimicrobial products in the air:
UV, radiation, ozone, charged particles and “supercharged” oxygen. All of these products
work together to kill pathogens (bacterial, viral). Cold plasma is an emerging, non-thermal
technology that could potentially decontaminate the surfaces of fresh produce. It offers the
advantage of being chemical and water-free because the antimicrobial products are formed in
air. While not currently available for commercial use, this non-thermal processing technique
is environmentally friendly and sustainable, as it does not require storage of chemicals or
usage of large volumes of processing water. Since cold plasma is a waterless process and can
be implemented in open air, it can be integrated into a forced air cooling process.

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 APPLICATION OF FREEZING IN FOOD INDUSTRY

Freezing is the unit operation in which the temperature of a food is reduced below its
freezing point and a proportion of the water undergoes a change in state to form ice crystals.
The immobilisation of water to ice and the resulting concentration of dissolved solutes in
unfrozen water lower the water activity (aw) of the food
Preservation is achieved by a combination of low temperatures, reduced water activity
and, in some foods, pre-treatment by blanching. There are only small changes to nutritional
or sensory qualities of foods when correct freezing and storage procedures are followed.
The major groups of commercially frozen foods are as follows:
 Fruits (strawberries, oranges, raspberries, blackcurrants) either whole or pure´ed, or as
juice concentrates
 Vegetables (peas, green beans, sweet corn, spinach, sprouts and potatoes)
 Fish fillets and sea foods (cod, plaice, shrimps and crab meat) including fish fingers,
fish cakes or prepared dishes with an accompanying sauce
 Meats (beef, lamb, poultry) as carcasses, boxed joints or cubes, and meat products
(sausages, beef burgers, reformed steaks)
 Baked goods (bread, cakes, fruit and meat pies)
 Prepared foods (pizzas, desserts, ice cream, complete meals and cook–freeze dishes).

Important factors for a freezing system are:

1. Freezing time.

2. Freezing rate.

• Freezing time: Time required to lower product temperature from its initial
temperature to a given temperature at its thermal center. Depends on;

1. Dimensions and shape of product, particularly thickness.

2. Initial and final temperatures

3. Temperature of refrigerating medium

4. Surface heat transfer coefficient of product

5. Change in enthalpy

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 6. Thermal conductivity of product

• Freezing rate (°C/h): Defined as the ratio of difference between initial and final
temperature of product to freezing time. It is important because of the effects on the
size of ice crystals, cell hydration, and damage to cell walls. Faster rate of freezing
smaller the crystal size and less damage to the structure of the food.

Methods of freezing

The freezing methods are classified as two methods

• Sharp freezing: Involves freezing by circulation of air, either naturally or with the aid
of fans.

Temperature range -15 to -29°C

Freezing time - 3 to 72 hours.

The ice crystals formed are

large and rupture the cells.

• Quick freezing: In this process the food attains the temperature of maximum ice
crystal formation (0 to -4°C) in 30 minutes or less.

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 The ice crystals formed are very small and minimum disturbance of cell structure.

Quick freezing techniques include:

- Air freezing: Air is the cooling medium. Ex. Blasts, fluidized bed, spiral.

- Indirect contact freezing: Food comes in contact with a cooled metal surface. Ex-
Plate freezer.

- Immersion Freezing: Direct immersion in refrigerants (glycols, glycerol, sodium

chloride, calcium chloride, and mixtures of salt and sugars)

- Cryogenic Freezing: Exposing food directly to a cold refrigerant (Liquid nitrogen)

undergoing phase change.

• Air freezing - Products frozen by either "still" or "blast" forced air at a temperature of
–18° to – 40 °C.

• cheapest (investment)

• "still" slower, crystal size is big.

• "blast" faster, crystal size small, commonly used.

Ex; Air Blast, Fluidised bed and spiral freezers.

Figure: Air Blast Cabinet freezer

• Indirect contact - Food placed in direct contact with cooled metal surface.

• Economical method

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 • minimizes problems of product dehydration, defrosting of equipment and
package bulging

Ex; Plate freezers.

Figure: Direct contact freezer

• Immersion freezing - Food placed in immersed or sprayed by refrigerant, direct

contact method. Commonly used refrigerants are propylene glycol, glycerol, sodium
chloride, and mixtures of salt and sugar.

• Rapid Freezing

• Easily adapted to continuous operations

• Expensive.

Figure: Immersion Freezer

• Cryogenic freezing: Exposing food directly to a refrigerant, direct contact method.

Liquid nitrogen is commonly used.

• Rapid Freezing

• Easily adapted to continuous operations

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 • Expensive

Figure: Cryogenic freezer

Retention of quality

Factors affecting the retention of quality in frozen foods are :

- The quality of the raw material used (variety, maturity, suitability for freezing and
frozen storage).

-
The treatment given prior to freezing (blanching, SO2, ascorbic acid).

- The freezing method and freezing rate.

- The storage temperature, and temperature fluctuations.

- The storage time

- The humidity of the storage environment, especially food is unpackaged

- The nature of packaging materials.

Changes during freezing

• Slows down
chemical and
enzymatic
reactions in foods
and stops
microbial growth.

• Expansion in
volume of the
frozen food.
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• Water is redistributed in food by the formation of ice crystals, resulting in alteration of
the characteristics of a food upon thawing.
Changes during Storage of Frozen Foods

Physical changes- Fluctuation in storage temperature results in an increase in the size of ice
crystals resulting in physical damage to the food.

Chemical Changes-lipid oxidation, Milliard and enzymatic browning, flavor deterioration

continues even at -18°C causing chemical changes.

Not Suitable for Freezing

• Whole eggs in shells, egg white, cooked sandwiches

• Vegetables like cabbage, celery, cucumbers, radishes, parsley lettuce etc

• Fruits like bananas, melons, pears

• Milk Sauces

• Sour cream

• Mayonnaise

• Salad Dressings

• Fruit Jelly

• Fried foods

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