GNBCY PP Chap13 Performance Measurement in Decentralized Organizations With Cover Page

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen
Performance Measurement in
Decentralized Organizations
Chapter 13
© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education

Decentralization in Organizations
Benefits of Top management

Decentralization freed to concentrate
on strategy.
Lower-level managers
gain experience in
decision-making. Decision-making
authority leads to
job satisfaction.
Lower-level decisions
often based on
better information.
Lower level managers
can respond quickly
to customers.
© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 3

Decentralization in Organizations
May be a lack of
coordination among
autonomous
Lower-level managers managers.
may make decisions
without seeing the
“big picture.” Disadvantages of
Decentralization
Lower-level manager’s
objectives may not
be those of the May be difficult to
organization. spread innovative ideas
in the organization.

Cost, Profit, and Investments Centers
Cost Profit Investment

Center Center Center
Cost, profit,
and investment
centers are all
known as Responsibility
Center
responsibility
centers.
Cost Center
A segment whose manager has control over costs,

but not over revenues or investment funds.

Profit Center
Revenues
A segment whose
Sales
manager has control
Interest
over both costs and
Other
revenues,
Costs
but no control over
investment funds. Mfg. costs
Commissions
Salaries
Other

Investment Center
Corporate Headquarters
A segment whose
manager has control
over costs, revenues,
and investments in
operating assets.

Responsibility Centers
Investment
Centers S upe rior Foods Corpora tion
Corporate H eadquarters
P resident and CEO
O perations Finance Legal P e rsonnel

V ice P resident Chief FInancial Officer G eneral Counsel V ic e P resident
S alty S nacks Beverages Confec tions

P roduct M anger P roduc t M anager P roduct M anager
Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution Cost

Centers
M anager M anager M anager
Superior Foods Corporation provides an example of the

various kinds of responsibility centers that exist in an
organization.
S upe rior Foods Corpora tion

P resident and CEO


Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution

Profit
Centers
organization.
S upe rior Foods Corpora tion

P resident and CEO


Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution Cost

Centers

organization.
Learning Objective 1
Prepare a segmented income
statement using the
contribution format, and
explain the difference between
traceable fixed costs and
common fixed costs.

Decentralization and Segment Reporting
An Individual Store
Popular Foods
A segment is any part

A Sales Territory
or activity of an
organization about
which a manager
seeks cost, revenue,
or profit data. A Service Center

Superior Foods: Geographic Regions
Superior Foods Corporation
$500,000,000 G
S H
u
h a
B a
a n
ei n
Singapore Malaysia n g
jiChinag Taiwan
$55,000,000 $70,000,000 g $300,000,000 z $75,000,000
n z
h h
g h
ai o
$ o
$ u
8 u
1 $
5, $
2 4
0 5
0, 5,
0 0,
0 0
0, 0
0 0
0 0
0, 0,
0 0,
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0 0
Superior Foods Corporation could segment
0 its business
by geographic region.

Superior Foods: Customer Channel
Superior Foods Corporation

$500,000,000
Convenience Supermarket Wholesale

Stores Chains Distributors
Drugstores
$80,000,000 $280,000,000 $100,000,000 $40,000,000
Huge
Cold Store M art Place Buy n Save
$65,000,00
$85,000,000 $40,000,000 $90,000,000
0
Superior Foods Corporation could segment its business

by customer channel.
Keys to Segmented Income Statements
There are two keys to building

segmented income statements:
A contribution format should be used
because it separates fixed from variable costs
and it enables the calculation of a
contribution margin.
Traceable fixed costs should be separated

from common fixed costs to enable the
calculation of a segment margin.

Identifying Traceable Fixed Costs
Traceable costs arise because of the existence of a

particular segment and would disappear over time if
the segment itself disappeared.
No computer No computer
division means . . . division manager.

Identifying Common Fixed Costs
Common costs arise because of the overall

operation of the company and would not
disappear if any particular segment were
eliminated.
No computer We still have a

division but . . . company president.

Traceable Costs Can Become
Common Costs
It is important to realize that the traceable

fixed costs of one segment may be a
common fixed cost of another segment.
For example, the landing fee

paid to land an airplane at an
airport is traceable to the
particular flight, but it is not
traceable to first-class,
business-class, and
economy-class passengers.
Segment Margin
The segment margin, which is computed by
subtracting the traceable fixed costs of a segment
from its contribution margin, is the best gauge of
the long-run profitability of a segment.
Profits
Time
Traceable and Common Costs
Fixed Don’t allocate

Costs common costs to
segments.
Traceable Common

Activity-Based Costing
Activity-based costing can help identify how costs
shared by more than one segment are traceable to
individual segments.
Assume that three products, 9-inch, 12-inch, and 18-inch pipe, share 10,000
square feet of warehousing space, which is leased at a price of $4 per square
foot.
If the 9-inch, 12-inch, and 18-inch pipes occupy 1,000, 4,000, and 5,000 square
feet, respectively, then ABC can be used to trace the warehousing costs to the
three products as shown.
Pipe Products
9-inch 12-inch 18-inch Total
Warehouse sq. ft. 1,000 4,000 5,000 10,000
Lease price per sq. ft. $ 4 $ 4 $ 4 $ 4
Total lease cost $ 4,000 $ 16,000 $ 20,000 $ 40,000

Levels of Segmented Statements
Webber, Inc. has two divisions.
W ebber, Inc.
Com puter Division T elevision Division
Let’s look more closely at the Television

Division’s income statement.

Our approach to segment reporting uses the
contribution format.
Income Statement Cost of goods
Contribution Margin Format sold consists of
Television Division variable
Sales $ 300,000 manufacturing
Variable COGS 120,000 costs.
Other variable costs 30,000
Fixed and
Total variable costs 150,000
variable costs
Contribution margin 150,000
are listed in
Traceable fixed costs 90,000
separate
Division margin $ 60,000
sections.

Our approach to segment reporting uses the
contribution format.
Income Statement
Contribution Margin Format Contribution margin
Television Division is computed by
Sales $ 300,000 taking sales minus
Variable COGS 120,000 variable costs.
Other variable costs 30,000
Total variable costs 150,000
Segment margin
Contribution margin 150,000
is Television’s
Traceable fixed costs 90,000
contribution
Division margin $ 60,000
to profits.

Income Statement
Company Television Computer
Sales $ 500,000 $ 300,000 $ 200,000
Variable costs 230,000 150,000 80,000
CM 270,000 150,000 120,000
Traceable FC 170,000 90,000 80,000
Division margin 100,000 $ 60,000 $ 40,000
Common costs
Net operating
income

Income Statement
Company Television Computer
Sales $ 500,000 $ 300,000 $ 200,000
Variable costs 230,000 150,000 80,000
CM 270,000 150,000 120,000
Traceable FC 170,000 90,000 80,000
Division margin 100,000 $ 60,000 $ 40,000
Common costs 25,000
Common costs should not
Net operating
be allocated to the
income $ 75,000
divisions. These costs
would remain even if one
of the divisions were
eliminated.
Common Costs
As previously mentioned, fixed costs that are

traceable to one segment can become common
if the company is divided into smaller
segments.
Let’s see how this works using

the Webber, Inc. example!

Common Costs
Webber’s Television Division

Television
Division
Regular Big Screen
Product
Lines
Common Costs
Income Statement
Television
Division Regular Big Screen
Sales $ 200,000 $ 100,000
Variable costs 95,000 55,000
CM 105,000 45,000
Traceable FC 45,000 35,000
Product line margin $ 60,000 $ 10,000
Common costs
Divisional margin
We obtained the following information from

the Regular and Big Screen segments.
Common Costs
Income Statement
Television
Division Regular Big Screen
Sales $ 300,000 $ 200,000 $ 100,000
Variable costs 150,000 95,000 55,000
CM 150,000 105,000 45,000
Traceable FC 80,000 45,000 35,000
Product line margin 70,000 $ 60,000 $ 10,000
Common costs 10,000
Divisional margin $ 60,000
Fixed costs directly traced

to the Television Division
$80,000 + $10,000 = $90,000

External Reports
The International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)
and US GAAP require companies to include segmented
financial data in their annual reports.
1. In addition to some compulsory
disclosure, companies must report
segmented results to shareholders
using the same measures to be used by
the Chief Operating Decision Maker
(CODM) to make decisions
2. Since the contribution approach to
segment reporting does not comply with
financial reporting standards, it is likely
that some managers will choose to
construct their segmented financial
statements using the absorption
approach to comply with GAAP.

Omission of Costs
Costs assigned to a segment should include all costs

attributable to that segment from the company’s
entire value chain.
Business Functions
Making Up The
Value Chain
Product Customer
R&D Design Manufacturing Marketing Distribution Service

Inappropriate Methods of Allocating Costs
Among Segments
Failure to trace
costs directly Inappropriate
allocation base
Segment Segment Segment Segment

1 2 3 4

Common Costs and Segments
Common costs should not be arbitrarily allocated to segments
based on the rationale that “someone has to cover the
common costs” for two reasons:
1. This practice may make a profitable business segment appear
to be unprofitable.
2. Allocating common fixed costs forces managers to be held

accountable for costs they cannot control.
Segment Segment Segment Segment

1 2 3 4

Quick Check 
Income Statement
Hoagland's
Lakeshore Bar Restaurant
Sales $ 800,000 $ 100,000 $ 700,000
Variable costs 310,000 60,000 250,000
CM 490,000 40,000 450,000
Traceable FC 246,000 26,000 220,000
Segment margin 244,000 $ 14,000 $ 230,000
Common costs 200,000
Profit $ 44,000
Assume that Hoagland's Lakeshore prepared its

segmented income statement as shown.
Quick Check 
How much of the common fixed cost of $200,000

can be avoided by eliminating the bar?
a. None of it.
b. Some of it.
c. All of it.

Quick Check 
How much of the common fixed cost of $200,000

can be avoided by eliminating the bar?
a. None of it.
b. Some of it.
c. All of it.
A common fixed cost

cannot be eliminated by
dropping one of the
segments.

Quick Check 
Suppose square feet is used as the basis for

allocating the common fixed cost of $200,000. How
much would be allocated to the bar if the bar
occupies 1,000 square feet and the restaurant 9,000
square feet?
a. $20,000
b. $30,000
c. $40,000
d. $50,000

Quick Check 
Suppose square feet is used as the basis for

allocating the common fixed cost of $200,000. How
much would be allocated to the bar if the bar
occupies 1,000 square feet and the restaurant 9,000
square feet?
a. $20,000
b. $30,000 The bar would be
c. $40,000 allocated 1/10 of the cost
d. $50,000 or $20,000.

Quick Check 
If Hoagland's allocates its common

costs to the bar and the restaurant,
what would be the reported profit of
each segment?

Allocations of Common Costs
Income Statement
Hoagland's
Sales $ 800,000 $ 100,000 $ 700,000
Variable costs 310,000 60,000 250,000
CM 490,000 40,000 450,000
Traceable FC 246,000 26,000 220,000
Segment margin 244,000 14,000 230,000
Common costs 200,000 20,000 180,000
Profit $ 44,000 $ (6,000) $ 50,000
Hurray, now everything adds up!!!

Quick Check 
Should the bar be eliminated?
a. Yes
b. No

Quick Check 
Should the bar be eliminated?
a. Yes
b. No The profit was $44,000 before
eliminating the bar. If we eliminate
the bar,
Income profit drops to $30,000!
Statement
Hoagland's
Sales $ 700,000 $ 700,000
Variable costs 250,000 250,000
CM 450,000 450,000
Traceable FC 220,000 220,000
Segment margin 230,000 230,000
Common costs 200,000 200,000
Profit $ 30,000 $ 30,000
Compute return on investment

(ROI) and show how changes in
sales, expenses, and assets
affect ROI.

Return on Investment (ROI) Formula
Income before interest

and taxes (EBIT)
Net operating income

ROI =
Average operating assets
Cash, accounts receivable, inventory,

plant and equipment, and other
productive assets.

Net Book Value vs. Gross Cost
Most companies use the net book value of

depreciable assets to calculate average
operating assets.
Acquisition cost
Less: Accumulated depreciation
Net book value

Understanding ROI
ROI =
Margin =
Sales
Sales
Turnover =
ROI = Margin  Turnover

Increasing ROI
There are three ways to increase ROI . . .

Reduce
Increase Expenses Reduce
Sales Assets

Increasing ROI – An Example
Regal Company reports the following:
Net operating income $ 30,000
Average operating assets $ 200,000
Sales $ 500,000
Operating expenses $ 470,000
What is Regal Company’s ROI?

Net operating income Sales
ROI = ×
Sales Average operating assets

Increasing ROI – An Example

ROI = ×
ROI = $30,000 $500,000

×
$500,000 $200,000
ROI = 6%  2.5 = 15%

Investing in Operating Assets to Increase
Sales
Assume that Regal's manager invests in a $30,000
piece of equipment that increases sales by
$35,000, while increasing operating expenses
by $15,000.
Regal Company reports the following:
Net operating income $ 50,000

Average operating assets $ 230,000
Sales $ 535,000
Operating expenses $ 485,000
Let’s calculate the new ROI.

Investing in Operating Assets to Increase
Sales

ROI = ×
ROI = $50,000 $535,000

×
$535,000 $230,000
ROI = 9.35%  2.33 = 21.8%
ROI increased from 15% to 21.8%.

Criticisms of ROI
In the absence of the balanced

scorecard, management may
not know how to increase ROI.
Managers often inherit many

committed costs over which
they have no control.
Managers evaluated on ROI

may reject profitable
investment opportunities.

Compute residual income and

understand its strengths and
weaknesses.

Residual Income - Another Measure of
Performance

above some minimum
return on operating
assets

Calculating Residual Income
( )
Net Average Minimum
Residual
= operating - operating  required rate of
income
income assets return
This computation differs from ROI.

ROI measures net operating income earned relative
to the investment in average operating assets.
Residual income measures net operating income
earned less the minimum required return on average
operating assets.

Residual Income – An Example
The Retail Division of Zephyr, Inc. has average

operating assets of $100,000 and is required to
earn a return of 20% on these assets.
In the current period, the division earns $30,000.
Let’s calculate residual income.

Residual Income – An Example
Operating assets $ 100,000

Required rate of return × 20%
Minimum required return $ 20,000
Actual income $ 30,000

Minimum required return (20,000)
Residual income $ 10,000

Motivation and Residual Income
Residual income encourages managers to
make profitable investments that would
be rejected by managers using ROI.

Quick Check 
Redmond Awnings, a division of Wrap-up Corp., has

a net operating income of $60,000 and average
operating assets of $300,000. The required rate of
return for the company is 15%. What is the division’s
ROI?
a. 25%
b. 5%
c. 15%
d. 20%

Quick Check 
Redmond Awnings, a division of Wrap-up Corp., has a

net operating income of $60,000 and average operating
assets of $300,000. The required rate of return for the
company is 15%. What is the division’s ROI?
a. 25%
b. 5%
c. 15%
ROI = NOI/Average operating assets
d. 20%
= $60,000/$300,000 = 20%

Quick Check 
Redmond Awnings, a division of Wrap-up Corp.,

has a net operating income of $60,000 and
average operating assets of $300,000. If the
manager of the division is evaluated based on
ROI, will she want to make an investment of
$100,000 that would generate additional net
operating income of $18,000 per year?
a. Yes
b. No

Quick Check 

net operating income of $60,000 and average
operating assets of $300,000. If the manager of the
division is evaluated based on ROI, will she want to
make an investment of $100,000 that would generate
additional net operating income of $18,000 per year?
a. Yes
b. No
ROI = $78,000/$400,000 = 19.5%
This lowers the division’s ROI from
20.0% down to 19.5%.

Quick Check 
The company’s required rate of return is 15%.

Would the company want the manager of the
Redmond Awnings division to make an
investment of $100,000 that would generate
additional net operating income of $18,000 per
year?
a. Yes
b. No

Quick Check 
The company’s required rate of return is 15%. Would

the company want the manager of the Redmond
Awnings division to make an investment of $100,000
that would generate additional net operating income
of $18,000 per year?
a. Yes
b. No ROI = $18,000/$100,000 = 18%
The return on the investment
exceeds the minimum required rate
of return.

Quick Check 

company is 15%. What is the division’s residual income?
a. $240,000
b. $ 45,000
c. $ 15,000
d. $ 51,000

Quick Check 

company is 15%. What is the division’s residual income?
a. $240,000
b. $ 45,000
c. $ 15,000
d. $ 51,000 Net operating income $60,000
Required return (15% of $300,000) (45,000)
Residual income $15,000

Quick Check 
If the manager of the Redmond Awnings division

is evaluated based on residual income, will she
want to make an investment of $100,000 that
would generate additional net operating income
a. Yes
b. No

Quick Check 
If the manager of the Redmond Awnings division

is evaluated based on residual income, will she
want to make an investment of $100,000 that
would generate additional net operating income
a. Yes
b. No Net operating income $78,000
Required return (15% of $400,000) (60,000)
Residual income $18,000
Yields an increase of $3,000 in the residual income.

Divisional Comparisons and Residual
Income
The residual
income approach
has one major
disadvantage.
It cannot be used
to compare the
performance of
divisions of
different sizes.

Zephyr, Inc. - Continued
Recall the following Assume the following
information for the Retail information for the Wholesale
Division of Zephyr, Inc. Division of Zephyr, Inc.
Retail Wholesale
Operating assets $ 100,000 $ 1,000,000
Required rate of return × 20% 20%
Minimum required return $ 20,000 $ 200,000
Retail Wholesale
Actual income $ 30,000 $ 220,000
Minimum required return (20,000) (200,000)
Residual income $ 10,000 $ 20,000

Zephyr, Inc. - Continued
The residual income numbers suggest that the Wholesale Division outperformed
the Retail Division because its residual income is $10,000 higher. However, the
Retail Division earned an ROI of 30% compared to an ROI of 22% for the
Wholesale Division. The Wholesale Division’s residual income is larger than the
Retail Division simply because it is a bigger division.
Retail Wholesale
Operating assets $ 100,000 $ 1,000,000
Required rate of return × 20% 20%
Minimum required return $ 20,000 $ 200,000
Retail Wholesale
Actual income $ 30,000 $ 220,000
Minimum required return (20,000) (200,000)
Residual income $ 10,000 $ 20,000

Compute delivery cycle time,

throughput time, and
manufacturing cycle
efficiency (MCE).

Delivery Performance Measures
Order Production Goods

Received Started Shipped
Process Time + Inspection Time

Wait Time + Move Time + Queue Time
Throughput Time
Delivery Cycle Time
Process time is the only value-added time.

Delivery Performance Measures
Order Production Goods

Received Started Shipped
Process Time + Inspection Time

Wait Time + Move Time + Queue Time
Throughput Time
Delivery Cycle Time

Manufacturing
Value-added time
Cycle =
Efficiency Manufacturing cycle time
Quick Check 
A TQM team at Narton Corp has recorded the

following average times for production:
Wait 3.0 days Move 0.5 days
Inspection 0.4 days Queue 9.3 days
Process 0.2 days
What is the throughput time?
a. 10.4 days.
b. 0.2 days.
c. 4.1 days.
d. 13.4 days.

Quick Check 

Process 0.2 days
What is the throughput time?
a. 10.4 days.
b. 0.2 days.
Throughput time = Process + Inspection + Move + Queue
c. 4.1 days. = 0.2 days + 0.4 days + 0.5 days + 9.3 days
d. 13.4 days. = 10.4 days

Quick Check 

Process 0.2 days
What is the Manufacturing Cycle Efficiency (MCE)?
a. 50.0%.
b. 1.9%.
c. 52.0%.
d. 5.1%.

Quick Check 

Process 0.2 days
What is the Manufacturing Cycle Efficiency (MCE)?
a. 50.0%.
b. 1.9%. MCE = Value-added time ÷ Throughput time
= Process time ÷ Throughput time
c. 52.0%.
= 0.2 days ÷ 10.4 days
d. 5.1%.
= 1.9%
Quick Check 

Process 0.2 days
What is the delivery cycle time (DCT)?
a. 0.5 days.
b. 0.7 days.
c. 13.4 days.
d. 10.4 days.

Quick Check 

Process 0.2 days
What is the delivery cycle time (DCT)?
a. 0.5 days.
b. 0.7 days.
DCT = Wait time + Throughput time
c. 13.4 days.
= 3.0 days + 10.4 days
d. 10.4 days. = 13.4 days

Understand how to construct

and use a balanced scorecard.

The Balanced Scorecard
Management translates its strategy into

performance measures that employees
understand and influence.
Financial Customers
Performance
measures
Internal Learning
business and growth
processes

The Balanced Scorecard: From
Strategy to Performance Measures
Performance Measures
Financial What are our
Has our financial
financial goals?
performance improved?
Customer What customers do Vision

we want to serve and
Do customers recognize that
how are we going to and
we are delivering more value? win and retain them? Strategy
Internal Business Processes What internal busi-

Have we improved key business ness processes are
processes so that we can deliver critical to providing
more value to customers? value to customers?
Learning and Growth

Are we maintaining our ability
to change and improve?
The Balanced Scorecard:
Non-financial Measures
The balanced scorecard relies on non-financial measures

in addition to financial measures for two reasons:
 Financial measures are lag indicators that summarize

the results of past actions. Non-financial measures are
leading indicators of future financial performance.
 Top managers are ordinarily responsible for financial

performance measures – not lower level managers.
Non-financial measures are more likely to be
understood and controlled by lower level managers.
The Balanced Scorecard for Individuals
The entire organization Each individual should

should have an overall have a personal
balanced scorecard. balanced scorecard.
A personal scorecard should contain measures that can be

influenced by the individual being evaluated and that
support the measures in the overall balanced scorecard.
The Balanced Scorecard
A balanced scorecard should have measures

that are linked together on a cause-and-effect basis.
If we improve Another desired

Then
one performance performance measure
measure . . . will improve.
The balanced scorecard lays out concrete

actions to attain desired outcomes.

The Balanced Scorecard and Compensation
Incentive compensation should be linked to
balanced scorecard performance
measures.

The Balanced Scorecard ─ Jaguar Example
Profit
Financial
Contribution per car
Number of cars sold

Customer
Customer satisfaction
with options
Internal
Business Number of Time to
options available install option
Processes
Learning Employee skills in

and Growth installing options
Profit
Number of cars sold
Customer satisfaction Results

with options Satisfaction
Increases
Strategies
Increase Number of Time to
Options options available install option Time
Decreases
Increase Employee skills in

Skills installing options
Profit

Results
Cars sold
Number of cars sold Increase
Increases
Number of Time to
Employee skills in
installing options
Profit
Results
Contribution per car Contribution
Increases
Number of cars sold
Increases
Number of Time to
options available install option Time
Decreases
Employee skills in
installing options
Results
Profit Profits
Increase
If number
Contribution per car Contribution
of cars sold Increases
and contribution
Cars Sold
per car increase, Number of cars sold
Increases
profits
increase. Customer satisfaction
with options
Number of Time to
Employee skills in
installing options
Key Performance Indicators for a Balanced
Scorecard
Key performance indicators (KPIs) should address
• Missions and Vision of the organization
• Management principles and objectives (i.e. Execution of
strategy)
• Critical success factors of the organization and operations
• Key objectives of the subsidiary/division/department/employee
• Balance of lead and lag measures (i.e. measures that lead to
future success and measures that reflect historical
performance)
Number of KPI s should be kept at a controllable number.

Summary of the Measures and Their Purposes Internal
Business Learning &
Financial Customer Process Growth
Performance Measures F1 F2 C1 C2 IBP1 IBP2 LG1 LG2
Objectives / Critical Success Factors
& Vision
Missions
Employee Satisfaction **  
Customer Satisfaction **  
Innovative Products **  
Management
Principles
Profitable Growth 
Focus on delivery of quality
 
products to valued customers
Responsibilities to Society     
Quality  
Critical
Factors
Response Time 
Cost    
Division’s
Objective
Sales Growth **  
** = Also a critical success factor

F1 = residual income (or EVATM) Improvement IBP1 = production defect rate
F2 = sales growth IBP2 = percentage goods returned to sales
C1 = turnover percentage from key customers LG1 = employee productivity
C2 = percentage of delivery accuracy LG2 = employee satisfaction index
A Balanced Scorecard Example for a Business Division of a Media Product Manufacturer
Measures Targets Review Objectives
Frequency
Financial
F1 EVA improvement This year’s EVA – Previous year ′ s EVA 15% Annually Profitability
Previous year ′ s EVA and effective
use of funds
F2 Sales growth This year’s sales dollar – Previous year ′ sales dollar 15% Annually Sales growth
Previous year ′ sales dollar
Customer
C1 Turnover Loss of number of customers with annual 0% Frequently  Quality of
percentage from revenue of more than $10m. (Minimum products and
key customers Quarterly) services
 Customer
satisfaction
 Sales and
marketing
effort
C2 Delivery accuracy On-time delivery per order 100% Frequently  Customer
(Minimum satisfaction
Quarterly)  Coordinating
effort
Internal Business Process
IBP1 Defects per Defects per million units 3 Monthly  Quality
million units  Cost
IBP2 Percentage of Actual sales value of goods returned 0.3% Monthly  Production
goods returned Sales value before goods returns quality
 On time
delivery
Learning and Growth
LG1 Employee Sales dollar per man-hour $300 per Annually  Employee
productivity man-hour training and
productivity
 Employee
satisfaction
LG2 Employee Survey’s index score Index score Six months Employee
satisfaction index 85 satisfaction
Strategic Linkage between measures and perspectives

Transfer Pricing
Appendix 13A
© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education

Key Concepts/Definitions
A transfer price is the price
charged when one segment of
a company provides goods or
services to another segment of
the company.
The fundamental objective in

setting transfer prices is to
motivate managers to act in the
best interests of the overall
company.

Three Primary Approaches
There are three primary

approaches to setting
transfer prices:
1. Negotiated transfer prices;
2. Transfers at the cost to the
selling division; and
3. Transfers at market price.
Determine the range, if any,

within which a negotiated
transfer price should fall.
Negotiated Transfer Prices
A negotiated transfer price results from discussions

between the selling and buying divisions.
Range of Acceptable
Transfer Prices
Advantages of negotiated transfer prices:
Upper limit is
1. They preserve the autonomy of the determined by the
divisions, which is consistent with buying division.
the spirit of decentralization.

2. The managers negotiating the
transfer price are likely to have much
better information about the potential
costs and benefits of the transfer
than others in the company.
Lower limit is
determined by the
selling division.
Grocery Storehouse – An Example
Assume the information as shown with respect

to West Coast Plantations and Grocery Mart
(both companies are owned by Grocery
Storehouse).
West Coast Plantations:
Naval orange harvest capactiy per month 10,000 crates
Variable cost per crate of naval oranges $ 10 per crate
Fixed costs per month $ 100,000
Selling price of navel oranges on the outside
market $ 25 per crate
Grocery Mart:
Purchase price of current naval oranges $ 20 per crate
Monthly sales of naval oranges 1,000 crates
The selling division’s (West Coast Plantations) lowest acceptable transfer
price is calculated as:
Variable cost Total contribution margin on lost sales
Transfer Price  +
per unit Number of units transferred
Let’s calculate the lowest and highest acceptable

transfer prices under three scenarios.
The buying division’s (Grocery Mart) highest acceptable transfer price is
calculated as:
Transfer Price  Cost of buying from outside supplier
If an outside supplier does not exist, the highest acceptable transfer price
is calculated as:
Transfer Price  Profit to be earned per unit sold (not including the transfer price)
If West Coast Plantations has sufficient idle capacity (3,000 crates) to
satisfy Grocery Mart’s demands (1,000 crates), without sacrificing
sales to other customers, then the lowest and highest possible
transfer prices are computed as follows:
Selling division’s lowest possible transfer price:
$ -
Transfer Price  $10 + = $ 10
1,000
Buying division’s highest possible transfer price:
Transfer Price  Cost of buying from outside supplier = $ 20
Therefore, the range of acceptable

transfer prices is $10 – $20.
If West Coast Plantations has no idle capacity (0 crates) and must
sacrifice other customer orders (1,000 crates) to meet Grocery Mart’s
demands (1,000 crates), then the lowest and highest possible transfer
prices are computed as follows:
( $25 - $10) × 1,000
Transfer Price  $ 10 + = $ 25
1,000

Therefore, there is no range of

acceptable transfer prices.
If West Coast Plantations has some idle capacity (500 crates) and
must sacrifice other customer orders (500 crates) to meet Grocery
Mart’s demands (1,000 crates), then the lowest and highest possible
transfer prices are computed as follows:
( $25 - $10) × 500
Transfer Price  $ 10 + = $ 17.50
1,000

Therefore, the range of acceptable

transfer prices is $17.50 – $20.00.
Evaluation of Negotiated Transfer Prices
If a transfer within a company would result in
higher overall profits for the company, there is
always a range of transfer prices within which
both the selling and buying divisions would have
higher profits if they agree to the transfer.
If managers are pitted against each other rather

than against their past performance or
reasonable benchmarks, a non-cooperative
atmosphere is almost guaranteed.
Given the disputes that often accompany the

negotiation process, most companies rely on
some other means of setting transfer prices.
Transfers at the Cost to the Selling Division
Many companies set transfer prices at either

the variable cost or full (absorption) cost
incurred by the selling division.
Drawbacks of this approach include:
1. Using full cost as a transfer price
can lead to sub-optimization.
2. The selling division will never
show a profit on any internal
transfer.
3. Cost-based transfer prices do not
provide incentives to control
costs.
Transfers at Market Price
A market price (i.e., the price charged for an

item on the open market) is often regarded as
the best approach to the transfer pricing
problem.
1. A market price approach works
best when the product or service
is sold in its present form to
outside customers and the
selling division has no idle
capacity.
2. A market price approach does
not work well when the selling
division has idle capacity.
Divisional Autonomy and Suboptimization
The principles of
decentralization suggest
that companies should
grant managers autonomy
to set transfer prices and
to decide whether to sell
internally or externally,
even if this may
occasionally result in
suboptimal decisions.
This way top management
allows subordinates to
control their own destiny.
End of Chapter 13

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© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education

Benefits of Top management

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 3

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 4

Cost Profit Investment

A segment whose manager has control over costs,

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© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 7

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 8

O perations Finance Legal P e rsonnel

S alty S nacks Beverages Confec tions

Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution Cost

Superior Foods Corporation provides an example of the

S upe rior Foods Corpora tion

O perations Finance Legal P e rsonnel

S alty S nacks Beverages Confec tions

Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution

S upe rior Foods Corpora tion

O perations Finance Legal P e rsonnel

S alty S nacks Beverages Confec tions

Bottling P lant W arehouse Distribution Cost

Superior Foods Corporation provides an example of the

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 12

A segment is any part

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 13

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 14

Superior Foods Corporation

Convenience Supermarket Wholesale

Superior Foods Corporation could segment its business

There are two keys to building

Traceable fixed costs should be separated

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 16

Traceable costs arise because of the existence of a

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 17

Common costs arise because of the overall

No computer We still have a

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 18

It is important to realize that the traceable

For example, the landing fee

Fixed Don’t allocate

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 21

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 22

Webber, Inc. has two divisions.

Com puter Division T elevision Division

Let’s look more closely at the Television

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 23

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 24

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 25

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 26

As previously mentioned, fixed costs that are

Let’s see how this works using

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 28

Webber’s Television Division

Regular Big Screen

We obtained the following information from

Fixed costs directly traced

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 31

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 32

Costs assigned to a segment should include all costs

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 33

Segment Segment Segment Segment

© 2015 McGraw-Hill Education Garrison, Noreen, Brewer, Cheng & Yuen 34