PRODUCED WATER

TREATMENT
LUISA FERNANDA ORTIZ RAMIREZ - 2143622

LINA MARÍA VARGAS AVENDAÑO - 2164099

Surface facilities
2021-1
 Schedule
Introduction

Disposal standards

Characteristics of Produced Water

Produces water treating system

Kahoot

Design
 Introduction
When hydrocarbons are produced, the well stream typically contains
water produced in association with these hydrocarbons.

Produced water
Brine
Brackish
Salty
 Disposal Standards

Standards for the

disposal or produced
water to surface
waters both onshore Disposal of produced
and offshore are water into
developed by freshwater streams
governmental and rivers is generally
regulatory prohibited except for
authorities. the very limited
cases where the
effluent is low in
salinity.
Produced water from onshore operations be
disposed of by subsurface injection.
 Characteristics of Produced Water
Dissolved
Solids
Dissolved Gases
Produced water contains
a number of substances, Precipitated
in addition to Solids (Scales)
hydrocarbons, that affect
the manner in which the Oil in water
water is handled. emulsions
Dispensed Oil
Dissolved oil
concentrations
Dissolved Solids
Produced waters contain dissolved solids ----> 100 mg/l to over 300,000 mg/l.
Water produced with gas is condensed water vapor with few dissolved solids and
will be fresh. Aquifer water produced with gas or oil will be much higher in dissolved
solids.

Chloride Magnesium
anions
Sodium
cations Iron

Calcium
 Precipitated Solids (Scales)
The more troublesome
ions are those that
react to form
precipitates when
pressure, temperature, • Calcium carbonate
or composition • Calcium sulfate
changes occur. • Iron sulfide
• Barium and strontium
sulfate
 Scale Removal

Mechanical
Hydrochloric acid
method

Iron sulfide reacts Can create a

Calcium carbonate It’s a time-
and produces Calcium sulfate is Barium or disposal problem
and iron sulfide consuming
hydrogen sulfide, not soluble. strontium sulfate. for the resulting
scale. process
highly toxic gas. waste material.
Controlling Scale Using Chemical
Inhibitors
Scale-inhibiting chemicals are
available to retard or prevent all
types of scale. They mostly function by enveloping
a newly precipitated crystal, thereby
retarding growth.

Organic
Inorganic
phosphate Phosphates Polymeres
phosphates
esters
 Sand and Other Suspended Solids
When solids are present, the following practices should
Formation sand be applied:
and clays
- Chemical treatment must be used to “break” the
electronic attraction between the solid particle and
the oil droplet.
- Equipment design must incorporate solids removal
miscellaneous ports, jets, and/or plates.
Stimulation - Oil measurement techniques not affected by the
corrosion
proppant solids should be used.
products.
- Water-flood injection for pressure maintenance and
additional recovery often requires filtration.

Dissolved Gases
Most of these gases are removed in
primary separators and stock tanks.
The lower the separation pressure and
higher the separation temperature,
the lower the quantity of dissolved
gases will be.
• Hydrogen sulfide.
• Natural gas.
• Carbon dioxide.
Oil in Water
Emulsions
An unstable emulsion will break within
minutes. A stable emulsion need
chemicals, heat, settling time, and
electrostatics to break the emulsion.
• Normal emulsions
• Reverse emulsions

Dissolved Oil
Concentrations
Produced water streams containing high
concentrations of dissolved oil can be
recycled to a fuel separator. It’s essential
lab testing to designing a water treating
facility. High salinity reduce the solubility of
dissolved hydrocarbons.
Dispersed Oil
• Dispersed oil can consist of oil droplets
ranging in size from about 0.5 microns
in diameter to greater than 200
microns in diameter.
• According to Stokes’ law, the rising
velocity of an oil droplet is proportional
to the square of the droplet diameter.

Toxicants
The potential for toxic effects in the natural
environment is one reason for concern about the
environmental effects of produced water
discharges.
The toxicity of produced water is determined by
exposing groups of test organisms to a series of
produced water concentrations in seawater for a
fixed period of time.
No Observable Effect
Concentration” (NOEC)
Naturally Occurring
Radioactive Materials
Scale which can trap and concentrate the
radium in production equipment, and radon
may be found in equipment with contact with
gas natural, these can be controlled in some
situations but cannot be eliminated entirely.
Management is on identification, control, and
volume reduction.
• Uranium
• Thorium
• Decay into different isotopes
of radium and randon
 Bacteria

Most produced waters contain API RP 38

bacteria but generally in small Bacteria < 10,000 per
Bacteria shouldn’t be a
amounts. mL (and no SRB are
problem.
present)
The types of bacteria are: Bacteria >100,000 per Biocide control should
1. Aerobic mL be used.
Treatment should be
2. Anaerobic SRB > 100 per mL
Initiated.
3. Facultative SRB Counts > 10,000 per Rigorous program of
mL biocide control.
 Produced water treatment system
The function of all
water treatment
equipment is to
cause the oil
droplets, to separate
and float to the
surface of the water
so they can then be
removed. Produced water will
always have some Lists the various
form of primary methods employed
treating prior to in produced water
disposal. Depending treating systems and
upon the severity of the types of
the treating equipment that
problem, secondary employ each
treatment may be method.
required.
 Produced water treatment system
The basic phenomena that are used in the design:
Most commonly used water treating equipment
Gravity Separation: depends on the forces of gravity to separate the
oil droplets from the water continuous phase.

Difference in
specific gravity
causes the oil to Buoyant Drag Ley de
float to the surface force force stokes
of the water

Caused by their vertical

movement through the
water
 Produced water treatment system
The basic phenomena that are used in the design:

Gravity Separation:

Theoretically, Stokes’ law should apply to oil

droplets as small as 10 microns. However,
field experience indicates that 30 microns
sets a reasonable lower limit on the droplet
sizes that can be removed.
Produced water treatment system
The basic phenomena that are used in the design:
The process of coalescence in water treating
Coalescence: systems is more time dependent than the
process of dispersion.

• Doubling the residence time causes only a 10%

increase in the maximum size droplet.
• The more dilute the dispersed phase (oil), the greater
the residence time required to grow a given particle
size will be. That is, coalescence occurs more rapidly in
concentrated dispersions.
Produced water treatment system
The basic phenomena that are used in the design:
The dispersion process is diametrically opposed by
Dispersion: coalescence.
The term “dispersion” refers to the process of a
discontinuous phase (oil) being split into small droplets and
distributed throughout a continuous phase (water).

In the piping a droplet of oil splits

into smaller droplets when the Coalescence:
kinetic energy is larger than the
difference in surface energy
between the droplets
Produced water treatment system
The basic phenomena that are used in the design:

Dispersion:

One relationship for the

maximum particle size
that can exist at
equilibrium was
proposed by Hinze
 Produced water treatment system
Process that involves the injection of fine gas bubbles
into the water phase

The gas bubbles in the water adhere to the oil

droplets.

Flotation: The buoyant force on the oil droplet is greatly

increased by the presence of the gas bubble.

Oil droplets are then removed when they rise to the

water surface, where they are trapped in the
resulting foam and skimmed off the surface.
Produced water treatment system
• Filtration

Flow of produced water through a properly selected filter

media will cause the small droplets of oil to contact and
attach to the filter fibers.
At some point the droplets will become large enough so that
the drag forces on the cause the now larger droplets to be
stripped from the media. Action is called “filter/coalescing.”
It is also possible to design the filter media to drop the oil.
The media is cleaned periodically
 Equipment Description and Sizing
Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels:
These items are normally designed to provide long
residence times during which coalescence and gravity
separation can occur.

Skim
(clarifier)
tank

Wash tank Settling tank

 Equipment Description and Sizing
Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels:

Skim (clarifier) tank

• It’s a tank that is used to remove dispersed oil.

Settling tank
• Tanks whose primary purpose is to remove entrained solids.

Wash tank
• Function as a free-water knockout, they are used when the incoming stream contains 10 to
90% oil. The water from wash tanks is generally sent to a skim (clarifier) tank or another unit to
remove the remaining oil.
 Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels:
Configurations: Skim vessels can be either vertical or horizontal in configuration.

VERTICAL:

The oil, water, and gases are introduced below the oil–
water interface. Small amounts of gas liberated from the
water help to “float” the oil droplets. In the quiet zone
between the spreader and the water collector, some
coalescence can occur.

Vertical skimmers are used in instances where Sand and

other solid particles must be handled.
 Skim Tanks and Skim Vessels:
Configurations: Skim vessels can be either vertical or horizontal in configuration.

HORIZONTAL:

Horizontal vessels are more efficient at water

treating because the oil droplets do not have
to flow countercurrent to the water flow.
However, vertical skimmers are used in
instances where:

1. Sand and other solid particles must be

handled.
2. Liquid surges are expected.
 Equipment Description and Sizing
Pressure Versus Atmospheric Vessels:
Pressure vessels are more expensive than tanks.
They are recommended when:
1. Potential gas blow-by through the vessel
dump system.
2. The water must be dumped to a higher level
for further treating and a pump would be
needed if an atmospheric vessel were installed.

Pressure vessels are preferred

of pressurized
Pressure Versus Atmospheric Vessels:
 Equipment Description and Sizing
Performance considerations Designed inlet and
outlet distributors

Unbaffled tanks are

Higher inlet water
inefficient due to
temperatures
short-circuiting.

Often water treating

chemicals, such as A short, wide,
flocculants, are added “stocky” tank is
upstream of the skim preferred over a tall
vessel.
30
 Equipment Description and Sizing
Performance considerations

Higher inlet water temperatures improve the oil removal.

Skim vessels are recommended Skim vessels aren’t recommended

Pressure reduction Degassing water, Influent oil droplet Size and weight are
from a separator is catching oil slugs or sizes are mostly below the primary
required controlling surges 100 microns. considerations.

The inlet oil Offshore structure

Solid contaminants
concentration is high movement could Water temperature is
are in the inlet
and the effluent must generate waves in the very cold
stream.
be reduced vessel.

31
 Skimmer Sizing Equations
Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel: Half-Full

The required diameter and length of a horizontal cylinder operating 50% full of water can be determined
from Stokes’ law:
 Skimmer Sizing Equations
Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel: Half-Full

A minimum retention time should be

provided to allow coalescence.
Retention times vary from 10 to 30
minutes.

Only those combinations that satisfy

both equation should be chosen.
 Skimmer sizing equations
Design Horizontal Cylindrical Vessel: Half-Full

The relationship between the Leff and the seam-to-seam length of a skimmer depends on the
physical design of the skimmer internals.

The Leff should be calculated using Eq. (9-9) but must be equal to or
greater than the values calculated using the following equations:

When the calculated Leff is less than 7.5 ft (2.3 m)

When one-half the diameter in feet exceeds one-third of the calculated

Leff .

34
 Skimmer Sizing Equations
Vertical Cylindrical Skimmer:

One can determine the required diameter of a vertical cylindrical tank by setting
the oil rising velocity equal to the average water velocity.

F= turbulence and short-circuiting.

• F=1, small-diameter settlers. D<48 in

• F=d/48, large-diameter settlers. D>48 in. Replacing in the last equation
gives the following:
 Skimmer Sizing Equations
Vertical Cylindrical Skimmer:

The height of the water column in a vertical skimmer can be determined for a
selected d from retention time requirements:

The height of the oil pad in both vertical and horizontal skimmers typically ranges from 2 to 6 in.
Coalescers

• Several different types of devices have

been developed to promote the
coalescence of small dispersed oil
droplets.
• Also induce coalescence to improve
the separation.
• these devices can either match the
performance of a skimmer in less
space or offer improved performance
in the same space.
Coalescers
 Plate Coalescers:

• It’s about parallel plates to help gravity

separation in skim tanks.
• The plates provide a surface for the oil
droplets to collect and for solids
particles to settle.
• These are commonly called parallel
plate interceptors (PPI), corrugated
plate interceptors (CPI), or cross-flow
separators.
 Plate Coalescers:

flow is split between a number of parallel plates

spaced 1/2 to 2 in. (1.2 to 5 cm) apart. the oil droplet will have a forward velocity
The plates provide a surface for the oil droplets equal to the bulk water velocity.
to collect and for solids particles to settle.
 Parallel Plate Interceptor (PPI):

The interplate spacing can be small, which

would allow packing more plates inside a
vessel, which would in turn maximize the
area for oil droplets to coalesce. However,
this spacing would increase the
probability of plugging the interspaces
with solids. A distance of 3/4 in. is
typically used. The angle of inclination for
the plates is generally established at 45.
 Corrugated Plate Interceptor (CPI):

The most common form of parallel plate

interceptor used in production
operations is the corrugated plate
interceptor (CPI). This is a refinement of
the PPI in that it takes up less plan area
for the same particle size removal. The
plate pack is inclined at an angle of 45
and the bulk water flow is forced
downward.
 Corrugated Plate Interceptor (CPI):

In CPIs the parallel plates are corrugated

(like roofing material), and the axes of
the corrugations are parallel to the
direction of flow. In areas where sand or
sediment production is anticipated, the
sand should be removed prior to flowing
through a standard CPI.
Cross-Flow Devices

Equipment manufacturers have

modified the CPI configuration. This
modification allows the plates to be put
on a steeper angle to facilitate sediment
removal and to enable the plate pack to
be more conveniently packaged in a
pressure vessel. CPI separators are
generally cheaper and more efficient at
oil removal than cross-flow separators.
Cross-Flow Devices

• The cross-flow device may be installed in an

atmospheric vessel, or in a vertical pressure
vessel.
• CPI separators are generally cheaper and more
efficient at oil removal than cross-flow separators.
• Cross-flow separators should be considered
where a pressure vessel is preferred or where
high sand production is expected, and the sand is
not removed upstream of the water treating
equipment.
 Performance Considerations
• For efficient oil removal.
Downflow • The solids content is not significant.

• If the production stream contains a

Upflow significant amount of solid particles.

• The use of a pressure vessel is preferred

Cross flow and solids and oil removal is desired
 Performance Considerations

Plate separators advantages: Plate separators disadvantages:

• They require very little maintenance.
• They can accept fairly high concentrations of
oil or solids in the inlet feed. The inlet oil
influent can be as high as 3,000 mg/l.
• They are not effective for streams with slugs
of oil.
• They cannot effectively handle large amounts
of solids and emulsified streams.

• They can separate oil droplets down to about

30 microns.
• They are totally enclosed.
• They are simple and inexpensive in
comparison to some of the other types of
produced water treating devices.
 Performance Considerations
Plate separators are recommended:
• Water flow rate is steady, or feed is from a pump.
• Utilities and equipment are available to
periodically clean the plate packs.
• Influent oil content is high and oil concentration
must be reduced to 150 mg/l for effective
second-stage treating in a downstream unit.
• Solid contaminants are not significant in the
waste stream, and sand content is less than 110
ppm.
Plate separators are not recommended:
• Influent droplet sizes are mostly below 30
microns.
• Size and weight are the primary
considerations.
• Sand particle diameters are less than 25
microns, and solids removal is a primary
objective.
 Coalescer Sizing Equations

The Reynolds number for the flow regime cannot exceed 1,600. The minimum H times W
for a given Qw can be determined from
 CPI Sizing
Plate packs come in standard sizes with H = 325 ft (1 m), W = 325 ft (1 m), L = 575 ft (1.75 m), h = 0.69 in.,
and θ = 45°. The size of the CPIs is determined by the number of standard plate packs installed.

To ensure that the Reynolds number limitation is met, the flow through each pack should be
limited to 20,000 bwpd. It is possible to specify a 60 angle of inclination to help alleviate the
solids plugging. This requires a 40% increase in the number of packs
Oil/Water/Sediment Coalescing Separators
Is an enhancement of the cross-flow configuration

Atmospheric pressure tank: Vertical pressure vessel:

 Skimmer/Coalescers
Installing coalescing plates or packs within
horizontal skimmers or free-water knockouts
to encourage coalescence

The plates in a CPI or cross-flow vessel may be fabricated of

an oleophilic material and thereby serve as both a gravity
separation device and a coalescing device. Coalescers of
this type resemble filters but serve to “grow” rather than to
capture oil droplets.
Skimmer/Coalescers
Performance Considerations

Coalescers can be used Coalescers should not be used

• The coalescing section is accessible for • Inlet droplet sizes are less than 10
cleaning or replacement. microns.
• The inlet oil droplet size is less than 50 • Inlet droplet sizes are greater than 100
microns and larger droplets are desired. microns.
• Coalescers can also serve as a skimmer • Size and weight are primary
considerations.
 Free-Flow Turbulent Coalescers

Precipitators are obsolete and would not be

used in a new installation. In the past, it
was common to direct the water to be
treated through a bed of excelsior (straw)
or another similar medium, to aid in the
coalescing of oil droplets.
 Free-Flow Turbulent
Coalescers

• Plate coalescers have the disadvantage of requiring

laminar flow.
• They are no longer available for sale. Packs force the
water flow to follow a serpentine pipe-like path
sized to create turbulence of sufficient magnitude to
promote coalescence. Packs are less susceptible to
plugging since they require turbulent flow
 Flotation Units

They are the only commonly used water treating

equipment that does not rely on gravity separation
of the oil droplets from the water phase. They
employ a process in which fine gas bubbles are
generated and dispersed in water, where they
attach themselves to oil droplets and/or solid
particulates. The gas bubbles then rise to the
vapor–liquid interface as oily foam.
 Dissolved Gas Units:

Take a portion of the treated water effluent and

saturate the water with natural gas in a high-
pressure “contactor” vessel. The higher the
pressure, the more gas that can be dissolved in the
water. The gas saturated water is then injected
into the flotation tank The dissolved gas breaks out
of the oily water solution when the water pressure
is reduced to the low operating pressure of the gas
flotation unit.

This type of flotation unit typically has not worked well in the oil field.
These units have been used successfully in refinery operations
Dissolved Gas Units:
Dispersed Gas Units:

Gas bubbles are dispersed in the total

stream either by the use of a hydraulic
inductor device or by a vortex set up by
mechanical rotors. Gas bubble/oil
droplet attachment can be enhanced
with the use of polyelectrolyte
chemicals.
Hydraulic Induced
Units:
• Hydraulic induced flotation units
induce gas bubbles by gas aspiration
into the low-pressure zone of a
venturi tube.
• Hydraulic induced units are less
complex than the mechanical induced
units.
• Hydraulic induced units are available
with one, three, or four cells.
Mechanical induced units:

• Induce gas bubbles into the system by

entrainment of gas in a vortex
generated by a stirred paddle.
• The mechanical complexity makes
mechanical induced flotation units
the most maintenance-intensive of all
gas flotation configurations.
• mechanical induced flotation units
have traditionally operated very near
atmospheric pressure.
 Sizing Dispersed Gas Units

• An efficient design must have a high gas

induction rate, a small-diameter induced gas
bubble, and relatively large mixing zone.
• Should have oil removal efficiency between
40–55% per active cell and an overall
efficiency of about 90%.
• Each cell is designed for approximately 1
minute’s retention time.

As a result, may understate the effluent concentrations for influent oil concentrations less than 200 mg/l.
 Performance Considerations
Gas flotation units should be used:
• The inlet oil concentrations are not too
high (250–500 mg/l).
• Chemical companies are available to
formulate an appropriate chemical
treatment program.
• Power costs are low or moderate.
Gas flotation units should not be used:
• Equipment size and weight are prime
considerations.
• Service support from water treating
chemical vendors is limited.
• Very low effluent oil concentrations
are required.
• Power costs are high.
Hydrocyclones

• Centripetal forces cause the lighter-density droplets to

move toward the low-pressure central core, where
axial reverse flow occurs.
• A hydrocyclone can be oriented either horizontally or
vertically although horizontal orientation is more
common
• The energy required to achieve separation is provided
by the differential pressure across the cyclone. A
minimum of 100 psi is generally needed.
 Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones can be applied:
• Median oil particle size is in excess of 30 microns.
• size less than 30 microns
Produced water feed pressure is at least 100 psig.
• Platform deck space is a critical consideration
• An appreciable quantity of solids is not present.
• An appreciable amount of free gas is not present.
• Low equipment maintenance is desired.
Hydrocyclones are not applicable:
• A tight emulsion exists, with a median oil droplet
• The feed water pressure is less than 100 psig.
• The difference in specific gravity between the oil
and water is relatively low, that is, heavy crude is
being produced.
• Considerable sand is entrained in the produced
water.
Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones
Example
Design the produced water treatment system for the following data:

- 40 °API
- Qw: 5000 bwpd
- Enclosure size is 2500 ft2
- Discharge criteria of 48 mg/l
- Water gravity feeds the system. P=14.7 psi
- Soluble crude of 6 mg/l
- Crude oil concentration in produced water is 1000 mg/l
- Maximum crude oil particle diameter dmax: 500 microns
- (ΔSG) w: 1.07
- μw: 1 cp
- Retention time: 10 min
- F (factor taking into account turbulence): 1
The required effluent quality is 48 mg/l. The dissolved oil is 6 mg/l. Therefore, the required
effluent quality is 42 mg/l.

1. The size of the crude oil droplet to 𝑑𝑚 42

be removed to reduce the crude oil
=
500 1000
concentration from 1,000 mg/l to 42
mg/l is:

dm = 21 micras
 2. We have to consider the flotation cell:

Efficiency: 90%.
Output quality: 42 mg/l

Then the Inlet quality: 420 mg/l

420 mg/l < 1000 mg/l

(the inlet quality is lower than the concentration

of crude oil in the produced water).

Therefore, it is necessary to install a primary

treatment device upstream of the flotation unit.

𝑑𝑚 420
=
500 1000

dm = 210 micras
The inlet to the water treatment system is at too low a pressure for a hydrocyclone, therefore, a
skimming vessel must be sized upstream of the flotation unit.

3. Skimming vessel design. The pressure vessel is necessary for process considerations.

a. Assume a horizontal pressure vessel

1000 𝑄𝑤 𝜇𝑤
𝑑𝐿 𝑒𝑓𝑓 =
( 𝛥 𝑆𝐺 ) ( 𝑑𝑚 )2

141,5 141,5
𝑆𝐺𝑜 = = =0,83
131,5+ 𝐴𝑃𝐼 131,5+ 40 1000 ∗ 5000 ∗1
𝑑𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 2
=472,41
𝛥 𝑆𝐺=𝑆𝐺𝑤 − 𝑆𝐺𝑜 ( 0,24 ) ( 210 )

𝛥 𝑆𝐺=1,07 −0,83=0,24
 Assume various diameters (d) and solve for Leff .

d (in) Leff (ft) Lss (ft)

4 24 19,68 26,24
𝐿𝑠𝑠= ∗ 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 48 9,8 13,07
3
60 7,87 10,49
72 6,56 8,75
84 5,62 7,49
96 4,92 6,56

To ensure that the proper retention time has been provided, the following equation must also be met.

d (in) Leff (ft) Lss (ft)

𝑑 2 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1,4 ∗ ( 10 ) ∗ 5000 =70000 24 121,53 162,04
48 30,38 40,51
𝑑 2 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓 =1,4 ( 𝑡 𝑟 )𝑤 𝑄𝑤60 19,44 25,92
72 13,50 18
84 9,92 13,23
96 7,59 10,12
 b. We assume that it is a Vertical pressure vessel.

2 𝑄𝑤 𝜇𝑤
𝑑 = 6691 𝐹
( 𝛥 𝑆𝐺 ) ( 𝑑 𝑚 )2

5000 ∗ 1
𝑑 2= 6691 ( 1 ) 2
=3160,90𝑑=56,22𝑖𝑛
( 0,24 ) ( 210 )
Seam to seam
• Retention time d (in) Heff (ft) Height (ft)

( 𝑡 𝑟 )𝑤 𝑄𝑤 54 12 16
𝐻 = 0,7
𝑑
2 60 9,72 12,96
66 8,03 11,66
10∗ 5000 72 6,75 9
𝐻= 0,7 35000
𝐻= 78 5,75 7,67
𝑑2 𝑑
2

Depending on cost and space considerations, we recommend a

72 in. × 10 ft. vertical vessel for this application.
Design Exercise
• 35 °API
• Qw: 3000 bwpd
• Enclosure size is 2500 ft2
• Discharge criteria of 55 mg/l
• Soluble crude oil of 8 mg/l
• Crude oil concentration in produced water is 1500 mg/l
• Maximum crude oil particle diameter dmax: 700 microns
• (ΔSG) w: 1,06
• μw: 1 cp
• Retention time: 12 min
• F (factor taking into account turbulence): 1
• Efficiency: 0.8
References
• Arnold K. & Stewart M, (2008). Surface Production Operations Design of Oil
Handling Systems and Facilities, Burlington, USA: Elsevier Inc.