Shear Strength of Soils

Strength of different
materials

Steel Concrete Soil

Tensile Compressive Shear

strength strength strength

Presence of pore water

Complex
behavior
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Embankment

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear
resistance

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Retaining
wall
 Shear failure of soils
Soils generally fail in shear

Mobilized
Retaining
shear
wall
resistance

Failure
surface

At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear strength.
Shear failure
mechanism

failure surface

The soil grains slide

over each other along
the failure surface.

No crushing of
individual grains.
Shear failure mechanism




At failure, shear stress along the failure surface ()

reaches the shear strength (f).
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of total stresses)


 f  c   tan 
el ope 
re env
failu
Friction angle
Cohesion
f
c



f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal stress of .
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
(in terms of effective stresses)


 f  c' ' tan  '

 '  u
el ope ’
env u = pore water
fa ilure
Effective pressure
cohesion Effective
f friction angle
c’
’ ’

f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take without

failure, under normal effective stress of ’.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Shear strength consists of two components:
cohesive and frictional.


 f  c' ' f tan  '

f
’f tan ’ t
frictional
’ on en component
comp
c’ c’ e si ve
coh
’f '
c and  are measures of shear strength.

Higher the values, higher the shear strength.

 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

Resolving forces in  and  directions,

 1'   3'
 Sin2 ' 2
' 2
   
'
2  '  
'

 '
  '
 '
  '
2
   1 3
  
1 3

 '  1 3  1 3 Cos 2 2  2 
   
2 2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1

' 2 ' 2
    
'  1'   3'
 '  
'
2
   1 3
  
1 3
 2
2  2 
    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2
 Mohr Circle of stress
’1

’
’3 ’3

Soil element 
’1


’, 

' 2 ' 2
    
'  1'   3'
 '  
'
2
   1 3
  
1 3
 2
2  2  
    ’
 3'  1'   3'  1'
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope


Failure surface  f  c' ' tan  '

Y
Y
X X
’
Soil elements at different locations

Y ~ stable
X ~ failure
Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
The soil element does not fail if
the Mohr circle is contained
within the envelope

GL


c
Y c
c c+
Initially, Mohr circle is a point

Mohr Circles & Failure Envelope
As loading progresses, Mohr
circle becomes larger…

GL


c
Y c
c

.. and finally failure occurs

when Mohr circle touches the
envelope
 Orientation of Failure Plane
’1 Failure envelope
’
’3 ’3
 ’, f
 –
’1

’ 
 3'  1'   3'  1' ’
2

PD = Pole w.r.t. plane

Therefore,
45 + ’/2
–’ = 
Mohr circles in terms of total & effective stresses

v v’ u

h h ’
= +
u
X X X

effective stresses
total stresses

h ’ v’ h v or’
u
 Failure envelopes in terms of total & effective
stresses
v v’ u

h h ’
= +
u
X X X

 Failure envelope in terms Failure envelope in

If X is on of effective stresses terms of total stresses
failure ’
effective stresses

total stresses

c’ c
h ’ v’ h v or’
u
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
’v = ’1  Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

’h = ’3
X
effective stresses
’’
’ c’
X is on failure ’3 ’1 ’
c’ Cot’ ’’
Therefore,
   1'   3'    1'   3' 
c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
   1'   3'    1'   3' 
c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 '
1   
  3'   1'   3' Sin '2c' Cos '
 1  Sin '   1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
'
1
'
3

'
  ' 1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
1 3
1  Sin ' 1  Sin '

'  ' ' 

2  ' 
   Tan  45    2c' Tan  45  
1 3
 2  2
Determination of shear strength parameters of
soils (c, orc’’

Laboratory tests on Field tests

specimens taken from
representative undisturbed
samples

Most common laboratory tests 1. Vane shear test

to determine the shear strength 2. Torvane
parameters are, 3. Pocket penetrometer
4. Fall cone
1.Direct shear test 5. Pressuremeter
2.Triaxial shear test 6. Static cone penetrometer
7. Standard penetration test
Other laboratory tests include,
Direct simple shear test, torsional
ring shear test, plane strain triaxial
test, laboratory vane shear test,
laboratory fall cone test
Laboratory tests
Field conditions

A representative
soil sample
z z
vc vc + 

hc hc hc hc

vc vc + 

Before construction After and during

construction
 vc + 
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions hc hc
st
in the laboratory te
al
i
0 vc r ax vc + 
T
Di vc
0 0 hc hc rect
sh
ea 
r te
st
0 vc 

Representative Step 1 vc

soil sample Step 2
taken from the Set the specimen in
site the apparatus and Apply the
apply the initial corresponding field
stress condition stress conditions
Direct shear test
Schematic diagram of the direct shear apparatus
Direct shear test
Direct shear test is most suitable for consolidated drained tests
specially on granular soils (e.g.: sand) or stiff clays

Preparation of a sand specimen

Porous
plates

Components of the shear box Preparation of a sand specimen

Direct shear test
Preparation of a sand specimen
Pressure plate

Leveling the top surface Specimen preparation

of specimen completed
Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation
Direct shear test
P Steel ball
Test procedure
Pressure plate
Porous
plates

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Step 1: Apply a vertical load to the specimen and wait for consolidation

Step 2: Lower box is subjected to a horizontal displacement at a constant rate

Direct shear test
Dial gauge to
measure vertical
Shear box displacement

Proving ring
to measure
shear force

Loading frame to Dial gauge to

apply vertical load measure horizontal
displacement
 Direct shear test
Analysis of test results

Normal force (P)

  Normal stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Shear resistance developed at the sliding surface (S)

  Shear stress 
Area of cross section of the sample

Note: Cross-sectional area of the sample changes with the horizontal

displacement
Direct shear tests on sands
Stress-strain relationship

 Dense sand/
OC clay
 f
stress,
Shear
Loose sand/
f NC clay

Shear displacement
Expansion
Change in height
of the sample

Dense sand/OC Clay

Shear displacement
Compression

Loose sand/NC Clay

Direct shear tests on sands
How to determine strength parameters c and 

 Normal stress = 3
 Normal stress = 2
stress,
Shear

Normal stress = 1
f2
f1
f3
Shear displacement

Mohr – Coulomb failure envelope

Shear stress at


f



failure,

Normal stress,

Direct shear tests on sands
Some important facts on strength parameters c and  of sand

Direct shear tests are

Sand is cohesionless drained and pore
hence c = 0 water pressures are
dissipated, hence u =
0
Therefore,
’ =  and c’ = c = 0
Direct shear tests on clays
In case of clay, horizontal displacement should be applied at a very
slow rate to allow dissipation of pore water pressure (therefore, one
test would take several days to finish)

Failure envelopes for clay from drained direct shear tests

Overconsolidated clay (c’ ≠ 0)

Normally consolidated clay (c’ = 0)

Shear stress at

’
f



failure,

Normal force,

Interface tests on direct shear apparatus
In many foundation design problems and retaining wall problems, it
is required to determine the angle of internal friction between soil
and the structural material (concrete, steel or wood)
P

Soil
S

Foundation material

Where,
 f  ca   ' tan  ca = adhesion,
= angle of internal friction
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sampling tubes

Sample extruder
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Sample is covered
with a rubber Cell is completely
membrane and sealed filled with water
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Proving ring to
measure the
deviator load

Dial gauge to
measure vertical
displacement
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
( = q)
Step 1
c Step 2

c c
c c

c c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
Types of Triaxial Tests
Step 1 Step 2

Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading
loading

CD test UU test

CU test
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC = hC

Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +  ’V = VC + =’1

hC 0 ’h = hC =’3

Drainage

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f=’1f

hC 0 ’hf = hC =’3f

Drainage
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = hC

Deviator stress (q or d) = 1 – 3

Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- drained test (CD Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand
or OC clay

d
d)f


Loose sand
Deviator

d)f or NC Clay
stress,

Axial strain
Expansion
Volume change

Dense sand
of the sample

or OC clay
Axial strain
Compression

Loose sand
or NC clay
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
d)fc
1 = 3 + (d)f

Confining stress = 3c

d


 Confining stress = 3b
Deviator


d)fb Confining stress = 3a 3
stress,

d)fa

Axial
strain

Mohr – Coulomb

failure envelope

stress,
Shear

or

 
 
3a 3b 3c 1a 1b 1c
’
(d)fa
(d)fb
CD tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Since u = 0 in CD Therefore, c = c’
tests,  = ’ and  = ’

cd and d are used

to denote them
CD tests Failure envelopes

For sand and NC Clay, cd = 0

d
Mohr – Coulomb

failure envelope

stress,
Shear

or

 
 
3a 1a
’
(d)fa

Therefore, one CD test would be sufficient to determine d

of sand or NC clay
CD tests Failure envelopes

For OC Clay, cd ≠ 0

OC NC


c or

 
 
3 1 c
(d)f
’
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed very slowly, in layers over a soft clay
deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ drained

shear strength
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
2. Earth dam with steady state seepage


Core

= drained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CD analysis for
clays
3. Excavation or natural slope in clay

= In situ drained shear strength

Note: CD test simulates the long term condition in the field.

Thus, cd and d should be used to evaluate the long
term behavior of soils
 Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: At the end of consolidation
VC ’VC = VC

hC 0 ’hC = hC

Drainage

Step 2: During axial stress increase

VC +  ’V = VC + ±u =’1

No
drainage hC ±u ’h = hC ±u =’3

Step 3: At failure
VC + f ’Vf = VC + f±uf =’1f

No
drainage hC ±uf 
’hf = hC ±uf =’3f
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Volume change of sample during consolidation

Expansion
Volume change of the

Time
sample

Compression
Consolidated- Undrained test (CU Test)
Stress-strain relationship during shearing

Dense sand
or OC clay

d
d)f


Loose sand
Deviator

d)f or NC Clay
stress,

Axial strain
+

Loose
sand /NC
Clay
u

Axial strain
Dense sand
-

or OC clay
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
d)fb 1 = 3 + (d)f
Confining stress = 3b
d


 Confining stress = 3a
3
Deviator


stress,

d)fa
Total stresses at failure
Axial
strain
Mohr – Coulomb cu
 failure envelope in
terms of total stresses

stress,
Shear

ccu or

 
 
3a 3b 1a 1b
’
(d)fa
CU tests How to determine strength parameters c and 
’1 = 3 + (d)f - uf

’=3 - uf
Mohr – Coulomb failure uf
envelope in terms of
effective stresses Effective stresses at failure

Mohr – Coulomb ’
 failure envelope in
terms of total stresses
cu

stress,
Shear

ufb
C’ ’3b ufa
ccu ’1b or

 
 
’3a 3a 3b ’1a 1a 1b
’
(d)fa
CU tests
Strength parameters c and obtained from CD tests

Shear strength
Shear strength parameters in terms
parameters in terms of effective stresses
of total stresses are are c’ and ’
ccu and cu
c’ = cd and ’ = d
CU tests Failure envelopes
For sand and NC Clay, ccu and c’ = 0
Mohr – Coulomb failure
envelope in terms of
effective stresses

Mohr – Coulomb ’ cu

failure envelope in
 terms of total stresses


stress,
Shear

or

 
 
3a 3a 1a 1a
’
(d)fa

Therefore, one CU test would be sufficient to determine

cu and ’= d) of sand or NC clay
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ undrained

shear strength
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
2. Rapid drawdown behind an earth dam


Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of CU analysis for
clays
3. Rapid construction of an embankment on a natural slope

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: Total stress parameters from CU test (ccu and cu) can be used for
stability problems where,
Soil have become fully consolidated and are at equilibrium with
the existing stress state; Then for some reason additional
stresses are applied quickly with no drainage occurring
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Data analysis
Specimen condition
Initial specimen condition during shearing
C = 3
No 3 + d
No
drainage C =  3 drainage 3

Initial volume of the sample = A0 × H0

Volume of the sample during shearing = A × H

Since the test is conducted under undrained condition,

A × H = A0 × H 0
A0
A ×(H0 – H) = A0 × H0 A
A ×(1 – H/H0) = A0
1  z
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Step 1: Immediately after sampling
0

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure

C =  3 ’3 = 3 -uc
No
C =  3
drainage
= uc + ’3 = 3 -uc

uc = B 3
Increase of cell pressure
Increase of pwp due to
increase of cell pressure
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, B
Note: If soil is fully saturated, then B = 1 (hence, uc = 3)
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Step 3: During application of axial load

’1 = 3 + d- uc ud
3 + d
No
drainage 3
= + ’3 = 3 - uc u d

uc ± ud

ud = ABd
Increase of pwp due to Increase of deviator
increase of deviator stress stress
Skempton’s pore water
pressure parameter, A
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Combining steps 2 and 3,

uc = B 3 ud = ABd

Total pore water pressure increment at any stage, u

u = uc + ud

u = B [3 + Ad]
Skempton’s pore
u = B [3 + A(1 – 3] water pressure
equation
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 1: Immediately after sampling ’V0 = ur
0
0 -ur ’h0 = ur

Step 2: After application of hydrostatic cell pressure ’VC = C +ur - C=ur

C
No
-uruc = -urc
drainage C ’h = ur
(Sr = 100% ; B = 1)
Step 3: During application of axial load ’V = C + + ur - c u
C + 
No
drainage C -urc ± u ’h = C + ur - c u
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f+ ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -urc ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c u f
= ’3f
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f+ ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -urc ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c uf
= ’3f

Mohr circle in terms of effective stresses do not depend on the cell

pressure.

Therefore, we get only one Mohr circle in terms of effective stress for
different cell pressures

’
’3 f ’1
 Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)
Total,  = Neutral, u + Effective, ’
Step 3: At failure ’Vf = C + f+ ur - c uf = ’1f
C + f
No
drainage C -urc ± uf
’hf = C + ur - c u
f
= ’3f

Mohr circles in terms of total stresses

Failure envelope, u = 0


cu
ub ua

3a
’
3b
3 f 
’1a
1b
1 or ’
Unconsolidated- Undrained test (UU Test)

Effect of degree of saturation on failure envelope

 S < 100% S > 100%

3c 3b c 3a b a or ’

Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
1. Embankment constructed rapidly over a soft clay deposit

Soft clay

 = in situ undrained

shear strength
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
2. Large earth dam constructed rapidly with
no change in water content of soft clay


Core

= Undrained shear

strength of clay core
Some practical applications of UU analysis for
clays
3. Footing placed rapidly on clay deposit

= In situ undrained shear strength

Note: UU test simulates the short term condition in the field.

Thus, cu can be used to analyze the short term
behavior of soils
Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + 

3 = 0

Confining pressure is zero in the UC test

Unconfined Compression Test (UC Test)

1 = VC + f

Shear stress, 
3 = 0

qu

Normal stress, 

τf = σ1/2 = qu/2 = cu
Various correlations for shear strength
For NC clays, the undrained shear strength (cu) increases with the
effective overburden pressure, ’0
cu
'
 0.11  0.0037( PI ) Skempton (1957)
0
Plasticity Index as a %
For OC clays, the following relationship is approximately true

 cu   cu 
 '   '   (OCR ) 0.8 Ladd (1977)
  0 Overconsolidated   0  Normally Consolidated

For NC clays, the effective friction angle (’) is related to PI as follows

Sin '  0.814  0.234 log( IP) Kenny (1959)

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
In the previous sections, we were discussing the shear strength of
saturated soils. However, in most of the cases, we will encounter
unsaturated soils

Air Pore air

Pore water pressure, ua
Water
pressure, u
Water Pore water
pressure, uw
Effective
Solid Solid
stress, ’ Effective
stress, ’

Saturated soils Unsaturated soils

Pore water pressure can be negative in unsaturated soils

Shear strength of partially saturated soils
Bishop (1959) proposed shear strength equation for unsaturated soils as
follows

 f  c'( n  ua )   (ua  u w )tan  '

Where,
n – ua = Net normal stress
ua – uw = Matric suction
= a parameter depending on the degree of saturation
( = 1 for fully saturated soils and 0 for dry soils)

Fredlund et al (1978) modified the above relationship as follows

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Where,
tanb = Rate of increase of shear strength with matric suction
Shear strength of partially saturated soils

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

Therefore, strength of unsaturated soils is much higher than the strength

of saturated soils due to matric suction

 – u w) 1
(u a
u )2 >
(u a –
w

) >0
u
( a – uw 1
’
= 0
uw
ua –

-ua
How it become possible
build a sand castle

 f  c'( n  ua ) tan  '(ua  u w ) tan  b

Same as saturated soils Apparent cohesion

due to matric suction

d s and
 ns at u r a te
’ = 0)
f o ru n d (c
v elope t e d sa
re en a t u ra
F ailu f o rs
>0 op e
– u w
)
en v e l ’
(u a ai lure
= 0 F
uw
Apparent ua –
cohesion -ua