Chapter 6

Directing
Learning Objectives
At the end of this chapter, the student is expected to
understand the following:
• Definition of Directing
• Nature of Directing
• Motivation
• Theories of Motivation
• Communication
• Types of Communication
• Barriers of Communication
• Leadership
• Types of Leadership
Directing
• Fourth universal function of management
• Refers to the process of motivation, communication,
and leadership
• Deals with the relationship or managers and non-
managers
Motivation
• Comes from the Latin word “movere” which means
to move
• Also defined as aim, desire, end, impulse, intention,
objective, and purpose
Common characteristics of motivation based on the definitions

• First, motivation is concerned with what activates

human behavior
• Second, motivation is concerned with what directs
this behavior toward a particular goal
• Third, motivation is concerned with how this behvior
is sustained
Motivation can be analyzed using the following causative sequence:

Needs Drives or
or Goals Motives Achievement
• A motive is a stimulus which leads to an action that
satisfies the need. In other words, motive produces
actions. Lack of sleep (the need) activates the
physical changes of fatigue (the motive) which
produces sleep (the action, or in this example,
inaction).
• Achievement of the goal satisfies the need and
reduces the motive. When the goal is reached,
balance is restored.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
Traditional Theory
• The traditional theory of motivation evolved from the
work 'Of Frederick W. Taylor
• Taylor's ideas were based on his belief that existing
reward systems were not designed to reward
individuals for high production
• MONEY is the primary motivator
The Hierarchy of Needs
• one of the most important theories of motivation is
the hierarchy of needs theory postulated by
industrial psychologist Abraham W. Maslow
• stated that human needs in the form of a hierarchy
should be satisfied in order, from the lowest to the
highest needs.
How can Managers Use
Maslow’s Theory?
Achievement - Power - Affiliation Theory
• Closely related to the need hierarchy theory is the
achievementpower-affiliation theory, primarily
developed by David McClelland
• This theory holds that all people have three needs:
(1) a need to achieve,
(2) a need for power, and
(3) a need for affiliation.
• The need for achievement is a desire to do
something better or more efficiently than it has been
done before
• The need for power is basically a concern for
influencing people - to be strong and influential
• The need for affiliation is a need to be liked - to
establish or maintain friendly relations with others.
McClelland maintains that most people have a
degree of each of these needs that the level of
intensity varies
• According to this theory, it is the responsibility of
managers to recognize the dominating needs in both
themselves and their employees and to integrate
these differences effectively
• Through self-analysis, managers can gain insight as to
how they tend to respond to employees
Motivation-Maintenance Theory
• Frederick Herzberg, Bernard Mausner, and Barbara
Syndeman developed a theory of work motivation
which has wide acceptance in management circles
• referred to by several names: motivation-
maintenance theory, dual-factor theory, or
motivation-hygiene theory
The purpose of this work was summarized as follows:
• To industry, the payoff for a study of job attitudes
would be increased productivity, decreased
absenteeism, and smoother working relations.
• To the individual, an understanding of the foices that
lead to improved morale would bring great happiness
and greater self-realization
• In the interviews, researchers used what is called the
critical incident method.
• It was found through analysis of the interviewee's
statements that different factors were associated
with good and bad feelings. The findings fell into two
major categories. Those factors that were most
frequently mentioned in association with a favorably
viewed incident concerned the work itself.
• These factors were achievement, recognition,
responsibility, advancement, and the characteristics
of the job
• These included status; interpersonal relations with
supervisors, peers, and subordinates; technical aspects of
supervision; company policy and administration; job
security; work conditions; salary; and aspects of their
personal life that were affected by the work situation
• The latter set of factors were called "hygiene" or
"maintenance" factors because the researchers felt that
they were preventive in nature.
• the motivation-maintenance theory contends that
motivation comes from the individual, not from the
manager
McGregor's Theory X & Y
• McGregor categorizes the assumptions upon which
traditional organizations are based into theory "X," and the
assumptions consisted with the modem organizations and
current research literature into theory "Y.“
• Theory "X" views human beinf s as inherently lazy and hence
must be motivated by force.
• The individual must be threatened with punisnment in order
to make him increase his productivity. The direction and
control comes from outside the individual to motivate him
• On the other hand, theory "Y " contends that external
force or punishment is not the best way of motivating
individuals because they are capable of exercising self-
direction and self-control. Besides monetary needs, the
individual also has self-ego and self-realization needs
• McGregor emphasizes that motivation of employees is
best achieved when management creates an
environment that encourages members involving both
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, by directing their efforts
towards the goals of the organization.
• At the lower level, management should provide, on
an equitable basis, extrinsic rewards for all
contributions to productivity
• At the higher level, importance of planning,
organizing, staffing, directing and controlling should
be stressed so as to provide as appropriate
environment that will permit and encourage
employees to seek intrinsic rewards at work.
Achievement Theory
• According to this theory proposed by David McClelland, an individual's
ambition to do things better or achieve something is due to a very specific
motive or need.
• McClelland calls this motive the need for achievement
• This need is not something "inborn" but it can be acquired through training
and teaching the trainees to think and behave in terms of achievement.
• The achievement-oriented person likes situations in which he takes
personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
• He depends on his own abilities, not on chance. He has the tendency to get
concrete feedback as to how well he is doing
Barnard-Simon’s Theory of Equilibrium
• This theory states that the inducements provided by the
organization must be kept in equilibrium with the
contributions made by the employees
• equal wages must be paid for equal work
• If the inducements (wages and other benefits) are not kept
in balance with contributions of the workers, then their
motivation will be affected
• This theory probably deals with sustaining motivation rather
than increasing motivation.
 Inducements
(Provided by management)

Contributions 
(Provided by employees)
Vroom’s Preference-Expectanc­y Theory
• This theory is based on the premise that an individual
assigns 
values to the outcome of each alternative course of
action.
Motivation = E Valence x Expectancy
Reinforcement Theory
• B.F. Skinner's theory of motivation is known as the
reinforcement theory. According to Skinner, the following
are the components of motivated behavior:
1. Stimulus: The environmental setting in which behavior
occurs 
(performance).
2. Response: The behavior level itself.
3. Reinforcement: The reward given for good
performance only.
Maturity Theory
• Chris Argyrie proposed a theory of motivation on
maturity-im- maturity.
• He contends that as people grow (psychologically)
and ma- ture they strive toward the highest level of
need in Maslow's need hierarchy: self-actualization.
• Immature people are dependent on others and lack
self-initiative, mature people are independent.
 Job Enlargement
• This involves redesigning of jobs so that related activities are added
to those currently being performed.
• It is the process of allowing individual workers to determine their
own working place (within lim- its)
• to serve as their own inspectors by giving them responsibility for
quality control,
• to correct their own mistakes,
• to be responsible for their own machine set-up and repair, and
• to attain choice of method.
Job Enrichment
• A modem and a more permanent approach to
motivation is through job enrichment. This involves
putting meaning into jobs.
• In other words, it is putting Herzberg's two-factor
theory into effect by building motivators into the job.
• These motivators include achievement, growth,
responsibility, advancement, and recognition.
C O M M U N IC A TIO N
Types of Communication
• In organizational situations, there are:
• formal communications,
• informal communications,
• communication between groups,
• interpersonal communications,
• upward,
• downward,
• lateral communications
Types of Communication
• Formal and downward communication appear to be
the more common methods of communication in
many organizations. Under this approach, the
information flows down through the formal channels
in the organization
• The downward communication is classified into

1. Specific task directives: job instructions

2. Information regarding understanding of the task and
its position in the organization
3. Information on procedures and practices
4. Subordinates' performance feedback
5. Information on mission-indoctrination of goals
• Upward communication is encouraged by some
innovative organizations. Future growth and
efficiency through innovations and the correction of
problems are enhanced by upward communications
system s.
• Lateral communications or peer-level
communications enable members of a particular
level in the organization to share information and
thus improve their decisions and decision making
skills.
Grapevines
• The grapevine aids management in efficiency.
1. The grapevine is a permanent part of the formal
organizational structure. It should be used to facilitate
effective communication.
2. Managers should have a knowledge of what the
grapevine is communicating and why.
3. Managers' inputs into the grapevines are spread to a
greater number of employee-most employees hear grapevine
information for the first time from management.
Ways to Communicate
1. Informal talk or "grapevine" communication. This is the most fundamental form of
communication usually adopted by an informal organization.
2. Memoranda
3. Telephone calls
4. Interoffice News
5. Letters
6. Reports
7. Conferences/Conventions
8. Meetings
9. Bulletin Board Notices
10. Exhibits and Displays
11. Visual Aids
Flows of Information
• Downward and lateral information flow
• Upward flow of information
Some approaches for improving communication are:
1. An attitude of reasonable access and an open mind and ear.
2. Suggestion systems that are objective.
3. Availability of counselling and grievance system.
4. Encouragement of employee letters.
5. Participation in social activities which provide an opportunity for information
conversation.
6. Communicating with employees' families.
7. Utilizing employee attitude surveys and exit interview data.
8. Providing opportunities for subordinates to make presentations.
Communication Networks
• Communication networks refer to the pictorial
depictions of informal channels.
• Two-way communication involves feedback and
participation.
• In other research study, it was found that the
effective groups involved in complex tasks used
decentralized communication patterns, while routine
tasks involved centralized communication patterns.
 BARRIERS TO
COMMUNICATION
• Distance
• Distortion
• Semantics
• Lack of Levelling
• Lack of Trust
• Inaccessibility
• Lack of Clear Responsibilities
• Personal Incompatibility
• Refusal to Listen
• Failure to Use Proper Media
• Communication Gap
• Lack of Direction
LEADERSHIP
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
1. The dictatorial leader accomplishes tasks through
fear of penalties, and maintains a highly critical and
negative attitude in relations with subordinates. As a
boss, such a person expects subordinates to perform
well or be subject to punishment or replacement.
2. The autocratic leader assumes a paternalistic role
which forces subordinates to rely on the leader for
their satisfaction.
TYPES OF LEADERSHIP
3. Democratic leader depends not only on their own
capabilities but encourage consultation of subordinates.
4. The laissez-faire leader depends completely on
subordinates to establish their own goals and to make
their own decision.
 Power is the ability to
command or apply force the ability to lead
effectively

Power,
Authority, and
Leadership

Authority is the right to issue

directives and expend
resources
Leaders’ Attitudes
• Douglas McGregor developed two attitude profiles,
or assumptions, about the basic nature of people.
These attitudes were termed Theory X and Theory Y,
McGregor maintained that many leaders in essence
subscribe to either Theory X or Theory Y and behave
accordingly
Assumptions about People
Theory X
• The average human being has an inherent dislike of
work and will avoid it, if possible.
• Because of their dislike of work, most people must be
corrected, controlled, directed, or threatened with
punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort
toward the achievement of organizational objectives
Theory Y
• The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as
natural as play or rest
• External control and the threat of punishment are not the
only means for bringing about effort toward organizational
objectives. Workers will exercise self-direction and self-
control.
• Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards
associated with their achievement
• The average human being leans, under proper conditions,
not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
• The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of
imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution
of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly,
distributed in the population
• Under the conditions of modem industrial life, the
intellectual potentialities of the average human being
are only partially utilized.
M ANAGEM ENT SKILLS
Katz has identified three basic types of skills - technical,
human, and conceptual - which he says are needed by
all managers
• Technical skills
• Human skills
• Conceptual skills
MANAGEMENT ROLES
• Henry Mintzberg- proposed another method of
examining what managers do by introducing the
concept of managerial roles. 
• Role-defined as an organized set of behaviors
belonging to an unidentifiable job. 
Mintzberg 10 Managerial Roles:
3 Major groups 

• Interpersonal
1. Figurehead: Managers represents the organizational unit in
all matters of formality.
• 2. Liaison: Managers interacts with peers And other people
outside the organizational unit to gain Information and favors.
• 3. Leader: Manager provides guidance and motivation to the
work group and also defines the atmosphere in which the
work group will work
• Informational
1. Monitor: Manager serves as a receiver and
collector of information.
• 2. Disseminator: Manager transmits special
information within the organizational unit.
• 3. Spokesperson: Managers disseminate the
organization's information into its environment. 
• Decisional
1. Entrepreneur: Manager's role is to initiate change.
• 2. Disturbance Handler: The manager must assume when
the organization is threatened
• 3. Resource allocator: Managers decide where the
organization will expand its resources.
• 4. Negotiator: The managers assume when the
organization finds itself in major non-routine negotiations
with other organizations or individuals
Managerial Grid

• Robert Blake and John Mouton

- developed a distinctive approach to the study of
leadership: the managerial grid.

Two Basic Aspects of Leader Behavior

-measured on scale That ranges from 1(low) to 9 (high)

*Concern for production- (task orientation)

*Concern for people- (consideration) 
• For instance, the 1,1 leader is neither task-oriented
nor consid- erate; the 9/1 leader is very considerate
but not task-oriented; the 5,5 is somewhat task-
oriented and somewhat considerate; and the 9.9
leader is both very task-oriented and very
considerate {sec figure 6-11)
 Management Filipino Styles:
Five types of Filipino Managers (Management a'la Pinoy)
By: Ernest A. Franco
• Manager “ By Kayod ”

Kayod is a Filipino w ord that m ean s to give oneself

to h ard w o rk . This m a n a g e r is action -h u n g ry
and com m itted , and his m an n ers are rath er
seriou s an d those of an introvert. A form al and
serious w orker, he w o n 't give in to bribery o r any
an om alou s deals.
 Management Filipino Styles:
Five types of Filipino Managers (Management a'la Pinoy)
By: Ernest A. Franco
• Manager “By Lusot"

Lusot m ean s availing on a loophole. This m a n a g e r w

ill alw ays find loo p h o les to avoid h ard w o rk o r utilize
an excu se for failure. G iven to sh o rtcu ts and un con
ven tion al or ev en illegal m ean s to attain objec- tives. G
enerally an introvert, he deals w ith people inform ally.
 Management Filipino Styles:
Five types of Filipino Managers (Management a'la Pinoy)
By: Ernest A. Franco
• Manager “ By Libro "

Libro is*,a Spanish w o rd for "b o o k ." This m an ag

er literally goes b y the book. Scientific, thorou gh
and analytical, he generally h as ad ­eq u ately form al
•training in m an ag em en t.
 Management Filipino Styles:
Five types of Filipino Managers (Management a'la Pinoy)
By: Ernest A. Franco
• Manager “By Oido "

This m a n a g e r acquires his m an ag erial skills by

playing it b y ear. (Oido co m es from Spanish oir, "to
listen "). D epends on p ractical exp e- rien ce to co m
p en sate for his lack of n orm al m an ag em en t ed u
catio n - the o p p o site of the "lib ro " m anager.
 Management Filipino Styles:
Five types of Filipino Managers (Management a'la Pinoy)
By: Ernest A. Franco
• Manager “By U g n a y a n ”

T he hyb rid of the above m en tion ed types. A gifted

recon ciler of all p h ilosop h ies an d beliefs held b y
the v ario u s types of m an ag ers. P articip ato ry an
d co o rd in ativ e, he integrates v ario u s styles dep
en din g on the co m p an ies' n eed s an d conditions
Thank you
and
Godbless!