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UNIT 1: Analysis Techniques

Chapter 1: Introduction to Analysis of
Algorithms
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VEENA S BADIGER, Asst Professor
B.E, M.Tech
Department of Computer Applications

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Definition

• An algorithm is defined as finite sequence of

unambiguous instructions followed to
accomplish a given task.
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problem in finite number of steps by accepting
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a set of inputs and producing the desired

output.
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 Characteristics of algorithm
• Input : each algorithm should have zero or more
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inputs. The range of inputs for which algorithm

works should be satisfied.
• Output : the algorithm should produce correct
results. At least one output has to be produced.
• Definiteness : each instruction should be clear and
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• Effectiveness : the instruction should be simple and
should transform the given input to the desired
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• Finiteness : the algorithm must terminate a finite

sequence of instruction .
 Notion of algorithm
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• Algorithm should not be ambiguous.

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• The range of inputs for which an algorithm

works has to be specified carefully.
• The same algorithm can be represented in
several different ways.
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• Several algorithms for solving the same
problem on very different ideas .
• Algorithms for same problem can be based on
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very different ideas and can solve the problem
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with different speeds.
 Algorithm control structures
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• Conditional statement
1. If -then
2. If – else - if
• Looping statement
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1. For loop
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2. While loop
3. Repeat until loop
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 Analysis of algorithms
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(Autonomous) • The algorithm and design process is explained by
considering the following flow chart
Understanding the problem
Data structures
algorithm design techniques
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Design an algorithm

Prove algorithms correctness

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Analyze the algorithm

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Implement the algorithm

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 Method of specifying an algorithm
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• Natural language
• Flow chart
• pseudo code

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 Design an algorithm
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• Brute force
• Divide and conquer
• Decrease and conquer
• Transform and conquer
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• Dynamic programming
• Backtracking
• Branch and bound
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• Greedy method
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 Analysis of algorithm efficiency
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/performance analysis
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• Main purpose is to design most

efficient algorithm.
• Analysis helps in
1. select an algorithm which is more
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2. Find the bottlenecks in a given
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program.
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3. To maintain simplicity.
4. To maintain generality.
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Algorithms are analyzed in two ways

1.By checking the correctness of an

algorithm.
2.By measuring time and space
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complexity of an algorithm.

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10
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Two phases of analysis of algorithm
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1.Priori analysis: functions are obtained

which bounds the algorithms computing
time.
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collected in conjunction with time and
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space while executing.

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• The efficiency of an algorithm

depends on two factors
• Space efficiency
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• Time efficiency

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12
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Difference between analysis and
profiling or difference between priori
analysis and posteriori analysis.

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13
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Space complexity

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By
Veena S Badiger
B.E, M.Tech
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Asst Professor
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 It is the amount of a memory that may be
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required to run a program.
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Following components are important in
calculating space requirements.
1. Instruction space: space requried to store the
machine code generated by the compiler.
2. Data space: space needed for constants , static
variables , intermediate variables , dynamic
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variables etc.
3. Stack space: space to store return addresses ,
return values etc .
space compelxity given as
S(p)=cp+sp [sp-> space for code segments
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cp->space for activation

record]
 Examples on iterative algorithms
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Example 1:
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#include <stdio.h>
Void main()
{
int x,y,z,sum;
Printf(“enter the three numbers”);
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Sum=x+y+z;
Printf(“the sum =%d”,sum);
}
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ANS : s(p)=4n
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Example 2:
algorithm abc(a,b,c)
{
return a+b+b*c+(a+b-c)/(a+b)+4.0
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}

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 Example 3:
Algorithm sum(a,n)
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{
s=0.0;
For i=1 to n do
s=s+a[i]
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Return s;
}

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ANS: s(p)=n+3
 Example 4:
Find min(int [] x)
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{
int k=0; int n=x.length;
For(int i=1 ; i<n; i++)
{
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if (x[i] < x[k])
K=i;
}
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Return k;
}
ANS: s(p)=n+3
 Example 5:
Void multvect (int [] x , int [] [] a)
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{
int k=0;int n=x.length;
For(int i=1;i<n;i++)
{
for (int j=1 ; j<n;j++)
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a[i][j]=x[i]*x[j]
}
}
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}

ANS:s(p)= n x n+n+4
 Examples for recursive algorithm
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Example 1:
Algorithm Rsum(a,n)
{
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else return (Rsum(a,n-1)+a[n]);

}
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ANS: s(p)≥3(n+1)
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 Example 2:
Algorithm fact(n)
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{
if (n==0) then
Return 1
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else
Return (n* fact(n-1))
}
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ANS: s(p)≥2(n+1)
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Time complexity

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Definition
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• It is the amount of computer time

algorithm needs to run to completion.
• The T(p) taken by a program p is the sum
of the compile time and the execution
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• The compile time does not depends on
the instance characteristics. Also we may
assume that a complied program will run
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several times without recompilation.
• Therefore the runtime is denoted by tp.
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Following are some standard methods of
computing the time efficiency of
algorithms:

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• Operation counts
• Step counts
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• Asymptotic notations
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 Operation counts
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It is the simplest way to analyze .In this

method count the number of basic
operations in an algorithm .

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What is basic operation?
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• The operation that contributes most towards
the running time of the algorithm is called
basic operation.
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• A statement that executes maximum number
of times in a function is called basic
operation.
 Importance of basic operation
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• The number of times basic operation is
executed depends on the size of the input.
• Basic operation is the time consuming
operation in the algorithm.
• The running time is given by:
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T(n) ~ b*c(n)
T -> is the running time of the algorithm.
n-> the size of the input.
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c-> represent number of times the basic operation is
executed.
 Examples
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 A statement present in the innermost loop.
For (i=0;i<n;i++)
if(a[i]<a[j]) --------basic operation
 Addition operation while adding two matrices.
For (i=0;i<n;i++)
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
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 Search for a key in an array.(key comparisons)
 Sorting using bubble sort.(comparison of successive
elements) .
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 Multiplication of two matrices ,in this both
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multiplication and addition is performed since
multiplication takes longer this is considered to be
the basic operation.
 orders of growth
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• The behavior of some algorithm changes with
increase in value of n. the change in behavior of
the algorithm and algorithm efficiency can be
analyzed by considering the highest order of n.
• The order of growth is normally determined for
larger values of n.
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• The running time of an algorithm is measured as

logarithmic , linear, quadratic , cubic ,
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 The order of growth is shown below by
considering the common computing time
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N logN N NlogN N2 N3 2N N!
1 0 1 0 1 1 2 1

2 1 2 2 4 8 4 2

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8 3 8 24 64 512 256 4032

0
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32 5 32 160 1024 32768 4294967296 Very

high
 • Exponential function grows very fast even for
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small variations of N
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• LogN: indicates the running time of a program
is logarithmic.
• N : indicates the running time is linear.
• NlogN : indicates running time is NlogN
• N2 : indicates running time is quadratic.
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• 2N : indicates running time is exponential.
• N!: indicates running time is factorial.
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• Order of growth is given as
1 < logN < N < NlogN < N2 < N3 < 2N <N!
 Efficiency of an algorithm
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(Autonomous) • Worst case : the efficiency of an algorithm for
the input of size n for which the algorithm takes
longest time to execute among all possible
inputs.
• Best case : the efficiency of an algorithm for
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least time during execution among all possible
inputs of that size is called best case.
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• Average case: The running time for any given
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size input will be the average number of
operations over all problem instances for a
given size.
 Liner search
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Algorithm Lin_srch(A,N,key)
// Input: A is an array of size N & key is the
//element to be searched
// Output: return position if key present or -1 if key not
found
{
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for i=1 to N do
{
if a[i] = key then
return i;
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return -1;
}
 Important equations
u
1. ∑ 1+1+1---------+1 = u-l+1
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i=1
n
2. ∑ 1 = n
i=1
n -1
3. ∑ 1 = n-1
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1
n
4. ∑ n = n + n + ------ + n = n.n = n2
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i=1
n
5. ∑ i = 1+2+3 ------+n = n(n+1)/2 ≈ ½ n2
i=1
 n-1
6. ∑ i = 1+2+3 ----- --------- +(n-1) = n(n-1)/2 ≈ ½ n2
i=1
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n
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7. ∑ i2 = 12 + 22 + ----------n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6 ≈
(1/3)n3
i=1
n
8. ∑
i=1ik = 1k + 2k + ----------- nk ≈ nk+1/k+1
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n
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9. ∑
i=0a = 1+a+a +-----------------+a =a -1 / a-1 (a≠1)
i 2 n n+1

n
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10. ∑ 2
i=0
i
= =2n+1
-1
n
11. ∑ 1/i = 1+ 1/2+ 1/3+ ------------- +1/n ≈ log(n)+ y
i=1
 n
12. ∑ log i ≈ n log n
i=1
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n
13. ∑ 2i -1 = 2 + 22 + 23 -------- 2k-1 + 2k = 2k – 2
i=1
n
14. ∑ 2i = 2i – 2
i=1
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 Logarithmic equations
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1. Log a1 = 0
2. Log aa = 1
3. Log ax < 0
4. Log ax >1
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5. Log a(xy )= (Log ax) + (Log ay)
6. Log a(x/y) =(Log ax) - (Log ay)
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7. Log axz = zLog ax
8. Log aa2 = 2
9. aLogax = x
 Exponential equations
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1. a0 = 1
2. a1 = a
3. a-1 = 1/a
4. (am)n= amn
5. am.an = am+n
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 Examples on step count
Algorithm sum(a,n)
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(Autonomous) {
s=0.0
For (i=1 to n do)
{
s=s+a[i]
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}
Return s; T(p)=2n+3
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}
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Example 2
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Algorithm add(a,b,c,m,n)
{
for i=1 to m do
{
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for j=1 to n do
{
c[i,j]=a[i,j]+b[i,j]
T(p)=2mn+2m+1
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}
}
 Example 3
Algorithm fibo(n)
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{
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if(n<=1) then
write n
else
{
f2=0;f1=1;
{
Tfibo = n<=1  2
for i=2 to n do If n>1  4n+1
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{
f3=f1+f2
f1=f2
f2=f3
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}
write (f3)
}
}
 Recursive algorithm example
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Example 4
Algorithm Rsum(a,n)
{
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Trsum= 2 if n =0
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2 + Trsum(n-1) if n>
return 0.0 = 2(n+1)
else
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return( Rsum( a,n-1 )+a[n]);
}
 Example 5:
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Algorithm fact(n)
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{
if (n==0) then {
Tfact= 2 if n =0
return 1 2 + Tfact(n-1) if n>0
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else
return (n* fact(n-1))
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}
 Example 6:
Algorithm fibon(n)
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// input the number of elements
// output Fibonacci series
{
if n==0 or n==1
return 0;
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Else
If n==2
return 1
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else
return fibon(n-1) + fibon(n-2)
}
 Asymptotic notations
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(Autonomous) • The word asymptotic means the study of
functions of parameters ‘n’, as n grows larger and
larger without bound . i.e the runtime of
algorithm increases with the size of the input.
• In this we are concerned with how the running
time increases when the size of i/p increases.
• The value of function may increase or decrease
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growth of n the behavior of the function varies.
• Asymptotic notations are the notations using which
two algorithms can be compared with respect to
efficiency based on the order of growth of an
algorithm.
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 Different asymptotic notations
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• O ( Big Oh)
•  ( Big Omega)
• Θ ( Big Theta)

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 Bigh Oh(O)
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• It is also called Landau notation , Bachmann-

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Landau notation.
• This was introduced by number theorist Paul
bachman.
• It is often used to describe how the size of the
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• It is a measure of the longest amount of time that
it could possibly take for the algorithm to
complete execution.
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f(n).the upper bound on f(n) indicates that the
function f(n) will be the worst case that it does
not consume more than this computing time.
 Contd ..
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• Let n indicates the size of input and g
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(n) is a function Big Oh is defined as a
set of functions with a small or same
order of growth as g (n) as n goes to
infinity.
• Let f (n ) be the time efficiency of an algorithm . the
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NAAC with A+ function f (n) is said to be O (g (n)) denoted as
F (n) € O (g (n))
• If c is positive constant n0 is positive integer then
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 Problem’s on BigOh notation
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1. Let g(n)=n3 ,p.T n2 and n belongs to O(n3).

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2. Let f(n)=3n+2 .p.t f(n)=O(n)

3. Let f(n)=50n+6 p.t f(n)=O(n).
4. Let f(n)=100n+5 express f(n) using bigoh notation.
5. Let f(n)=10n2+4n+3 .p.t f(n)=O(n2).
6. Let f(n)=3n2+4n-2 p.t f(n)=O(n2).
7. Let f(n)=17n3-5 . P.t f(n)=O(n3).
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with A+Let f(n)=10n3+8 express f(n) using bigoh notation.
9. Let f(n)=5n3+2n2-5 . P.t f(n)=O(n3).
10. Let f(n)=6*2n+n2. express f(n) using bigoh notation.
11. P.t running T(n)=n3+20n+1 is O(n3).
12. P.t running T(n)=n3+20n+1 is not O(n2).
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13. P.t 2n+10 is O(n).

14. P.t 7n-1 is O(n).
15. 3n3+20n2+5 is O(n3).
 Big Omega notation ( )
• This gives the lower bound of f(n). The lower
bound implies that below this time the
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algorithm can not perform better. The

algorithm will take at least this much time.
Definition:
• Let f (n ) be the time efficiency of an
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algorithm . the function f (n) is said to be Ω(g
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F (n) € Ω (g (n))
Iff there exists c a positive constant and n0 is
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F (n) ≥ c*g (n) for all n ≥ n0
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 • Always big Oh gives upper bound i.e worst
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case.
• Always big omega gives lower bound i.e best
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case.
Example:
• find max min element worst case is O(n) and
best case is (n).
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a. for key found case best case  (1) and
worst
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case is O(n).
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b. For key not found case best case  (n) and
worst case is O(n).
 Problem‘s on big omega( ) notation
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1. Let g(n)=n3,p.t n3,n4,0.001n4,n5+n+3 belongs to

(n3).
2. Let f(n)=3n+2 . P.t f(n)=  (n)
3. F(n)=10n+5 . P.t f(n)= (n).
4. F(n)=100n+5 . P.t f(n)=  (n)
5. F(n)=100n2+10n-6 . P.t f(n)=  (n2).
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6. F(n)=6.2n+n2 . P.t f(n)=  (2n).

7. F(n)=5n2 . P.t f(n)=  (n).
8. F(n)=10n3+5 . P.t f(n)=  (n3)
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9. F(n)=n3+20n . P.t f(n)=  (n2)

 Big Theta notation (Θ)
• This notation is used in some problems
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where the lower and upper bound may

yield the same order of growth i.e. the
 and O will have the same g(n) , in
such type of problems we use Θ
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notation.
• Example :
finding maximum and minimum
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element in an array time complexity is ,
worst case is O(n) and best case is
(n).
 Definition
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Let (n ) be the time efficiency of an
algorithm . the function f (n) is said to be
Θ (n) denoted as
F (n) € Θ (g (n))
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if c1 ,c2 are positive constants , n0 is
non negative integer then
C1 * g (n) ≤ f (n) ≤ c2 * g (n) for all
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 Problem’s on big theta (Θ)notation
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1. given f(n)=3n+2 , p.t f(n)= Θ(n)

2. Let f(n)=100n+2 , p.t f(n)= Θ(n)
3. Let f(n)=10n2+4n+2 , p.t f(n)= Θ(n2)
4. Let f(n)=10n3+5 , p.t f(n)= Θ(n3)
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5.
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Let f(n)=6*2n+n2, p.t f(n)= Θ(2n)

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 Mathematical analysis of Non-
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recursive Algorithms
Steps:
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1. What is the input size?

2. Find out the basic operation from the main body
of the loop.
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3. What is the number of times the basic operation
is executed?

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4. Using the formula, establish f(n). Once we know
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f(n), finding its order of growth or the complexity
is straight forward.
 Mathematical analysis of non-
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recursive algorithms
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The following steps specify the general plan for
analyzing time efficiency of non recursive
algorithms
1. Decide on the parameters indicating input size.
2. Identify the basic operations in the algorithm.
3. Check whether the number of times the basic
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operation is executed depends only on the size
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property , the worst case , average case and best
case efficiencies has to be determined.
4. Obtain the total number of times a basic
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5. Using standard formulae and rules , find the
order of growth.
 Examples on non recursive
algorithms
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Example 1:
Algorithm : MaxElement(A[0:n-1])
// to find the largest element in an array
// input: An array A[0: n-1] of real numbers
// output: value of largest element of array A.
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{
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max=A[0]
for(i=1 to n-1 do)
if (A[i]>max)
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max=A[i]
return (max)
}
 Example 2
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Algorithm : Uniqueness (A[0 : n-1])
// to check whether there are any duplicates .
// Input: An array A[0 : n-1]
// output: Return ‘1’ if all the elements are distinct and ‘0’ if not.
{
for (i=1 to n-1 do)
{
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{
if ( A[i]==A[j])
return 0
}
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return 1
}
 Example 3:
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Algorithm: Matrix Multiplication (A[0:n-1],B[0:n-
1],C[0:n-1])
// Multiplication of two n x n matrices A and B
// Input : Two n X n matrices A and B.
// output : Another n X n matrix c=AB
{
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for i=0 to n-1 do
for j= 0 to n-1 do
c[i,j]=0
for k=1 to n do
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Group
c[i,j]= c[i,j]+A[i,k]*B[k,j]
}
 Mathematical analysis of
Presidency College
recursive Algorithms
(Autonomous)

Basically there are 3 methods

• Substitution method(backward substitution
method).
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• Iteration method.--- sigma
• Master method. Divide and conquer

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Group
 Steps to be followed for analyzing
Presidency College
time efficiency of recursive algorithm
(Autonomous)

1. Based on the input size decide the various

parameters to be considered.
2. Identify the basic operation in the
algorithm.
3. Obtain the number of times the basic
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4. Obtain the recurrence relation.
5. Solve the recurrence relation using
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Group
formulae or backward substitution
method ,obtain the order of growth and
express using asymptotic notation.
 Mathematical analysis of recursive Algorithms
Presidency College
Example 1:
(Autonomous)

Algorithm Fact(n)
//compute n factorial for non-negative number
{
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if n==0
return 1;

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else
Group

return n*Fact(n-1);
}
 EXAMPLE 2: Fibonacci
Presidency College
(Autonomous)
Algorithm: Fibonacci(n)
// input : A non negative number
// output: nth element of the Fibonacci series
{
if n=0 || n=1
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else
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return (Fibonacci(n-1) + Fibonacci(n-
Group
2));
}
 EXAMPLE 3: Tower of Hanoi
Presidency College Algorithm: ToweroHanoi(n)
(Autonomous)
// input : Number of discs n
// output: sequence of moves
{

if n==1
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else
ToweroHanoi(n-1,s,d,t)
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Group
move disk from source to destination(s to d)
ToweroHanoi(n-1,t,s,d)
}