Vibrations and Waves

1 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

• Physical Characteristics of Simple Harmonic

Oscillators
• A mass on a Spring
• The Pendulum
• Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator
• The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
• Oscillations in Electrical Circuits: Similarities
in Physics
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
• 1.1 Physical Characteristics of Simple Harmonic Oscillators
• 1.2 A Mass on a Spring
– 1.2.1 A mass on a horizontal spring
– 1.2.2 A mass on a vertical spring
– 1.2.3 Displacement, velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion
– 1.2.4 General solutions for simple harmonic motion and the phase angle φ
– 1.2.5 The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
– 1.2.6 The physics of small vibrations
• 1.3 The Pendulum
– 1.3.1 The simple pendulum
– 1.3.2 The energy of a simple pendulum
– 1.3.3 The physical pendulum
– 1.3.4 Numerical solution of simple harmonic motion
• 1.4 Oscillations in Electrical Circuits: Similarities in Physics
– 1.4.1 The LC circuit
– 1.4.2 Similarities in physics
• PROBLEMS 1
 Oscillatory Motion
Motion which is periodic in time,
that is, motion that repeats itself in
time.

Examples:
• Power line oscillates when the
wind blows past it
• Earthquake oscillations move
buildings
1 Simple Harmonic Motion
If an object vibrates or
oscillates back and forth
over the same path,
each cycle taking the
same amount of time,
the motion is called
periodic. The mass and
spring system is a
useful model for a
periodic system.
 1 Simple Harmonic Motion
We assume that the surface is frictionless.
There is a point where the spring is neither
stretched nor compressed; this is the
equilibrium position. We measure
displacement from that point (x = 0 on the
previous figure).
The force exerted by the spring depends on
the displacement:

(11-1)
 1 Simple Harmonic Motion

• The minus sign on the force indicates that it

is a restoring force – it is directed to restore
the mass to its equilibrium position.
• k is the spring constant
• The force is not constant, so the acceleration
is not constant either
1 Simple Harmonic Motion
• Displacement is measured from
the equilibrium point
• Amplitude is the maximum
displacement
• A cycle is a full to-and-fro
motion; this figure shows half a
cycle
• Period is the time required to
complete one cycle
• Frequency is the number of
cycles completed per second
Oscillations of a Spring
 Oscillations of a Spring
• Displacement is measured from the
equilibrium point.
• Amplitude is the maximum
displacement.
• A cycle is a full to-and-fro motion.
• Period is the time required to
complete one cycle.
• Frequency is the number of cycles
completed per second.
 11-1 Simple Harmonic Motion

If the spring is hung

vertically, the only change
is in the equilibrium
position, which is at the
point where the spring
force equals the
gravitational force.
 Oscillations of a Spring
When a family of four with a total
mass of 200 kg step into their
1200-kg car, the car’s springs
compress 3.0 cm. (a) What is the
spring constant of the car’s
springs, assuming they act as a
single spring? (b) How far will the
car lower if loaded with 300 kg
rather than 200 kg?
Solution:
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Substituting F = kx into Newton’s
second law gives the equation of
motion:
2
dv d  dx  d x
F  kx  m  m    m 2
dt dt  dt  dt
d 2x k
2
 x0
dt m
with solutions of the form:
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Substituting, we verify that this solution does
indeed satisfy the equation of motion, with:

The constants A and φ

will be determined by
initial conditions; A is
the amplitude, and φ
gives the phase of the
motion at t = 0.
The velocity can be found by differentiating the
displacement:

These figures illustrate the effect of φ:

 Simple Harmonic Motion
Because then
 Simple Harmonic Motion
Determine the period and frequency of a
car whose mass is 1400 kg and whose
shock absorbers have a spring constant
of 6.5 x 104 N/m after hitting a bump.
Assume the shock absorbers are poor,
so the car really oscillates up and down.
Solution:
ω is the angular frequency of the oscillator, with
units of rad s-1
A is a amplitude: the maximum value of the position of the
particle in either the positive or negative x direction.
 Simple Harmonic Motion
A vibrating floor.
A large motor in a factory causes the
floor to vibrate at a frequency of 10 Hz.
The amplitude of the floor’s motion
near the motor is about 3.0 mm.
Estimate the maximum acceleration of
the floor near the motor.
Solution:
Assuming the motion is simple harmonic,
The constant angle  is called the phase constant which has units of
radians (or initial phase angle) and, along with the amplitude A, is
determined uniquely by the position and velocity of the particle at t = 0.
If the particle is at its maximum position x = A at t = 0, the phase
constant is  = 0 and the graphical representation of the motion is
shown in Figure. The quantity (t +) is called the phase of the
motion
 1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Any vibrating system where the restoring

force is proportional to the negative of
the displacement is in simple harmonic
motion (SHM), and is often called a
simple harmonic oscillator.
An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x axis.
Its position varies with time according to the equation

where t is in seconds and the angles in the parentheses are in radians.

(A) Determine the amplitude, frequency, and period of the motion.
(B) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time t.
(C) Using the results of part (B), determine the position,
velocity, and acceleration of the object at t = 1.00 s.
(D) Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of
the object
(E) Find the displacement of the object between t =0 and t =1.00 s.
Spring calculations.
A spring stretches 0.150 m when a 0.300-kg mass is
gently attached to it. The spring is then set up
horizontally with the 0.300-kg mass resting on a
frictionless table. The mass is pushed so that the spring
is compressed 0.100 m from the equilibrium point, and
released from rest. Determine: (a) the spring stiffness
constant k and angular frequency ω; (b) the amplitude of
the horizontal oscillation A; (c) the magnitude of the
maximum velocity vmax; (d) the magnitude of the
maximum acceleration amax of the mass; (e) the period T
and frequency f; (f) the displacement x as a function of
time; and (g) the velocity at t = 0.150 s.
Solution:
Spring is started with a push.
Suppose the spring of the former example
(where ω = 8.08 s-1) is compressed 0.100 m
from equilibrium (x0 = -0.100 m) but is given
a shove to create a velocity in the +x
direction of v0 = 0.400 m/s. Determine (a) the
phase angle φ, (b) the amplitude A, and (c)
the displacement x as a function of time,
x(t).
Solution:
1.2.5 The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator
 =
𝟏 𝒗
=
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙
 Energy in the Simple
Harmonic Oscillator
If the mass is at the
limits of its motion, the
energy is all potential.
If the mass is at the
equilibrium point, the
energy is all kinetic.
We know what the
potential energy is at the
turning points:
 Energy in the SHO
This graph shows the potential energy
function of a spring. The total energy is
constant.
 Energy in the Simple Harmonic Oscillator

The total energy is, therefore

And we can write:
(11-4c)

This can be solved for the velocity as a

function of position:

where
 Energy in the SHO
Energy calculations.
For the simple harmonic oscillation where k =
19.6 N/m, A = 0.100 m, x = -(0.100 m) cos 8.08t,
and v = (0.808 m/s) sin 8.08t, determine (a) the
total energy, (b) the kinetic and potential
energies as a function of time, (c) the velocity
when the mass is 0.050 m from equilibrium, (d)
the kinetic and potential energies at half
amplitude (x = ± A/2).
Solution:
Solution:
 ❑ 𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 =−𝑚 g sin 𝜃=𝑚
𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡
Energy in the SHO
Doubling the amplitude.
Suppose this spring is
stretched twice as far (to
x = 2A).What happens to
(a) the energy of the
system, (b) the maximum
velocity of the oscillating
mass, (c) the maximum
acceleration of the mass?
Solution:
The Simple Pendulum
In order to be in SHM, the
restoring force must be
proportional to the negative of
the displacement. Here we
have:
which is proportional to sin θ
and not to θ itself.

However, if the
angle is small,
sin θ ≈ θ.
 The Simple Pendulum
Therefore, for small angles, we have:

where

The period and frequency are:

 1 2
𝐾= 𝑚 𝑣 ,𝑈 =𝑚𝑔𝑦
2
Oscillations in an LC Circuit
Q  Qm  cos   t 
I   Im  sin   t 
• When the energy stored in the capacitor has its
maximum value, , the energy stored in the
inductor is zero.
• When the energy stored in the inductor has its
maximum value, , the energy stored in the
capacitor is zero.
• The sum of the UC + UL is a
constant and equal to the total
energy .
• The kinetic energy of the moving mass, is
analogous to the energy stored in the
inductor, , which requires the presence of
moving charges.
• In figure a, all of the energy is stored as electric potential energy in the
capacitor at t = 0 s.

• In figure b, which is one-fourth of a period later, all of the energy is

stored as magnetic energy `in the inductor.
• In figure c, the energy in the LC circuit is stored completely
in the capacitor, with the polarity of the plates now opposite
to what it was in figure a.

• In figure d, all of the energy is stored as magnetic energy in

the inductor.
• In figure e, the system has returned to the initial position,
completing one oscillation.
• At intermediate points, part of the energy is potential energy
and part is kinetic energy.
• At some time t after the switch is closed and the capacitor
has a charge Q and the current is I.
– Both the capacitor and the inductor store energy, but the
sum of the two energies must equal the total initial
energy U stored in the fully charged capacitor at time t =
0 s.
 – Since the circuit resistance is zero, no energy is
dissipated as joule heat and the total energy
must remain constant over time.
Q2
U  UC  U L   0.5  L  I 2
2 C
dU
– Therefore: dt
 0

• Differentiating the energy equation with respect to

time and noting that
 Q 2Q and I vary with  time:
d   0.5  L  I 2 
dU  2 C 
 0
dt dt
  Q2 
d 
dU
  2 C 


 d 0.5  L  I 2
 0
dt dt dt
2 2
dU 1 dQ dI
   0.5  L  0
dt 2  C dt dt
dU 1 21 dQ 21 dI
  2 Q   0.5  L  2  I  0
dt 2 C dt dt
dU Q dQ dI
  L I  0
dt C dt dt
• We can reduce the equation to a differential equation of one
variable by using the following relationships:
dQ dI d 2Q
I  and 
dt dt dt 2
dU Q dQ dI
  L I  0
dt C dt dt
dU Q d 2Q
 I L I  2
0
dt C dt
Q d 2Q
 I  L  I  2
C dt
2 2
Q d Q d Q 1
 L   Q
C dt 2 dt 2 C L
• We can solve for the function Q by noting that the equation
is of the same form as that of the mass-spring system
(simple harmonic oscillator):
d 2x k
  x   2  x
dt 2 m
– where k is the spring constant, m is the mass, and
– The solution for the equation has the general form   k
m

x  A  cos   t   

– where ω is the angular frequency of the simple harmonic motion, A is

the amplitude of the motion (the maximum value of x), and  is the
phase constant; the values of A and  depend on the initial
conditions.
 d 2Q 1
• Writing   Q in the same form as the
dt 2 C L
differential equation of the simple harmonic oscillator, the
solution is:
Q  Qm  cos   t   
– where Qm is the maximum charge of the capacitor and
the angular frequency ω is given by:
1

L C
– The angular frequency of the oscillation depends on the
inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
• Since Q varies periodically, the current also varies
periodically.
• Differentiating the harmonic oscillator equation for the LC
oscillator with respect to time:

Q  Qm  cos   t   

dQ d Qm  cos   t   

dt dt
dQ d cos   t   
I  I  Qm 
dt dt
d   t   
I  Qm   sin   t    
dt
  d   t  d 
I  Qm  sin   t       
 dt dt 

 dt 
I  Qm  sin   t         0
 dt 
I  Qm    sin   t   

• To determine the value of the phase angle ,

examine the initial conditions. In the situation
presented, when t = 0 s, I = 0 A, and Q = Qm.
I  Qm    sin   t   
0  Qm    sin   0   
0  Qm    sin 
• The phase constant  = 0.
0  Qm    sin 
0  sin    sin 1 0
 0
• The time variation of Q and I are given by:

Q  Qm  cos   t 
I    Qm  sin   t 
I   Im  sin   t 

where Im = ω·Qm is the maximum

current in the circuit.
• Graphs of Q vs. t and I vs. t:
The charge on the capacitor
oscillates between the extreme
values Qm and –Qm.
 – The current oscillates between
Im and – Im.
– The current is 90º out of phase
with the charge.
– When the charge reaches an
extreme value, the current is 0;
when the charge is 0, the current
has an extreme value.
• Substituting the equations for
the oscillating LC circuit into
the energy equations: Q  Qm  cos   t 
I   Im  sin   t 
Q2
U  UC  U L   0.5  L  I 2
2 C
• Total energy:

Q2
U  UC  U L   0.5  L  I 2
2 C
Qm  cos   t 
2

 0.5  L    I m  sin   t 
2
U 
2 C
2
Qm
U   cos2   t   0.5  L  I m 2  sin2   t 
2 C
• The equation shows that the energy of the system
continuously oscillates between energy stored in
the electric field of the capacitor and energy stored
in the magnetic field of the inductor.
• When the energy stored in the capacitor has its
maximum value,Qm 2 , the energy stored in the
inductor is zero. 2  C
• When the energy stored in the inductor has its
maximum value, 0.5·L·Im2, the energy stored in the
capacitor is zero.
• The sum of the UC + UL is a
constant and
2
equal to the total
Qm
energy 2  C .
• Since the maximum energy stored in the capacitor (when I =
0) must equal the maximum energy stored in the inductor
(when Q = 0),
Qm 2
 0.5  L  I 2
2 C

• Substituting this into the total energy equation:

Qm 2
U   cos 2   t   0.5  L  I m 2  sin2   t 
2 C
Qm 2 Q 2
U   cos 2   t   m  sin2   t 
2 C 2 C
Qm 2
U 
2 C

 cos2   t   sin2   t  
 Qm 2
U 
2 C

 cos 2   t   sin2   t  
cos 2   t   sin2   t   1
Qm 2
U 
2 C
• The total energy U remains constant only if the energy
losses are neglected.
• In actual circuits, there will always be some resistance and
so energy will be lost in the form of heat.
• Even when the energy losses due to wire resistance are
neglected, energy will also be lost in the form of
electromagnetic waves radiated by the circuit.
 An Oscillatory LC Circuit
• An LC circuit has an inductance of 2.81 mH and a
capacitance of 9 pF. The capacitor is initially
charged with a 12 V battery when the switch S1 is
open and switch S2 is closed.
• S1 is then closed at the same time
that S2 is opened so that the
capacitor is shorted across the
the inductor.
• Find the frequency of the
oscillation.
• Frequency for an LC circuit:
1 1
   2  f 2  f 
L C L C
1 1
f  
2   L C 2    0.00281 H  9 x 10 12 F
6
f  1x 10 Hz
• What are the maximum values of charge on the
capacitor and current in the circuit?
– Initial charge on the capacitor equals the maximum
charge:
12 10
Qm  C  V  9 x 10 F  12V  1.08 x 10 C
• Maximum current is related to the maximum
charge:
Im    Qm  2    f  Qm
Im  2    1 x 106 Hz  1.08 x 10 10 C
Im  6.79 x 104 A

• Determine the charge and current as functions of

time.
  2    f  2    1 x 106 Hz  2   x 106 Hz

Q  Qm  cos   t   1.08 x 1010 C  cos 2   x 106 Hz  t 
I   Im  sin   t   6.79 x 10 4 A  sin 2   x 10 6
Hz  t 
Energy Oscillations in the LC
Circuit and the Mass-Spring
System (harmonic oscillator)
 Vibration and Waves

The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

The Period of an object undergoing SHM is

independent of the amplitude
Imagine an object traveling in a circular
pathway
If we look at the motion in
just the x axis, the
motion is analogous
to SHM
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

As the ball moves the displacement in the x

changes
The radius is the amplitude Vmax
The velocity is tangent to the q

circle V
A A 2
 x2
Now looking at Components
q
If we put the angles into the
triangle, we can see
similar triangles
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

So the opposite/hypotenuse is a constant

v A2  x 2

vmax A Vmax
q
This can be rewritten
2 V
x A A2  x 2
v  vmax 1 2
A q
This is the same as the
equation for velocity of
an object in SHM
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

The period would be the time for one

complete revolution
22x
A
r A
vTmax
v v
vmax
tT
The radius is the same as
the amplitude, and the
time for one revolution
is the period
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

Using the previous relationship between

maximum velocity and amplitude
2xA
rm
TTvv2
vmax
t k
2
1
2 kA mv
A2A
mv1 mm2 2
vmaxmax 2 kkmax
v 2 max

Substitute in the top equation

 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

Position as a function of time

x displacement is
A cos2
x x A cos( ft )
You don’t know this, but A
  2ft q

Where is the frequency

So
The Period and Sinusoidal
Nature of SHM

If we look at the projection onto

the x axis of an object moving
in a circle of radius A at a
constant speed vmax, we find
that the x component of its
velocity varies as:

This is identical to SHM.

SHO Related to Uniform
Circular Motion

   0  t   t   ,
x  A cos   A cos(t   ),
y  A sin   A sin(t   ),
v  A,
v x  A sin(t   ),
v y  A cos(t   ).
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

Therefore, we can use the period and frequency

of a particle moving in a circle to find the period
and frequency:
 The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM
We can similarly find the position as a function of
time:
The Period and Sinusoidal Nature of SHM

The top curve is a

graph of the previous
equation.
The bottom curve is
the same, but shifted
¼ period so that it is
a sine function rather
than a cosine.
 The Period and
Sinusoidal Nature of
SHM
The velocity and acceleration can
be calculated as functions of
time; the results are below, and
are plotted at left.