Biological Theories in the Early

Twentieth Century

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Charles Darwin – 1809-1882
The Origin of Species – What is Evolution?

In biology, evolution is the change in the characteristics of a

species over several generations and relies on the process of
natural selection.

Evolution relies on there being genetic variation in a population

which affects the physical characteristics (phenotype) of an
organism.

Some of these characteristics may give the individual an

advantage over other individuals which they can then pass on to
their offspring.

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution states that evolution

happens by natural selection. Individuals in a species show
variation in physical characteristics. This variation is because of
differences in their genes
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 Nature of the Criminal:

“…an atavistic being who produces in

his person the ferocious instincts of
primary humanity and their inferior
animals.”

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Atavistic Stigmata

Features of the thief:

expressive face, manual dexterity, and
small, wandering eyes.

Features of the murderer:

cold, glassy stares, bloodshot eyes and big
hawk-like nose.

Features of sex offenders:

thick lips and protruding ears.

Features of women offenders:

shorter and more wrinkled, darker hair
and smaller skulls than ‘normal’ women.
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Crime and Physical Characteristics Charles
Goring

1903: Goring compared “normal” males with

English convicts.
• He found no evidence of a distinct physical
type.
• However, criminals had lower intelligence.
– He theorized that the most important
genetically transmitted trait for criminals was
mental inferiority.
• His methods were flawed, because he
selected criminals exclusively from prison.8-5
 Crime and Physical Characteristics

1930s: Hooton used the same methodology with

large samples of prisoners and “normal” others.
• Criminals were socially and biologically inferior to
non-criminals (genetically inferior)
• Some new stigmata differentiating criminals from
Ernest Hooton
others were found. (low foreheads, small ears, etc.)
He advocated for the termination or segregation of “physically,
mentally, and morally unfit individuals.” This gave rise to the
eugenics movement. His work was discredited on scientific grounds.
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One of the most dominant and
recurrent themes of eugenics
philosophy in the late 19th and
early 20th century was the
emphasis on a link between
intellectual disability and
criminality, and the consequent
"menace" which intellectual
disability posed to society.

“Instead of waiting to execute

degenerative offspring, it is
better to prevent them from
continuing their kind.”
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Another Stigmata
Somatotype Theory William Sheldon

8
 Crime and Physical Characteristics

1950s: Sheldon developed somatotype theory. Endomorphs:

easygoing personalities

• The body types of endomorphs, mesomorphs, Ectomorphs:

and ectomorphs were associated with different introverted personalities and
personality traits. nervous dispositions
• Mesomorphs (muscular types with aggressive
personalities) were more likely to be involved in Mesomorphs:
delinquent or criminal behaviour. aggressive personalities, quick
to act, insensitive to pain
• His research was criticized for lack of rigor.

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 Crime and Intelligence

• Goddard’s research on the legitimate and illegitimate

offspring of Martin Kallikak suggested feeble-mindedness and
criminality were inherited. Henry Goddard

• Goddard later measured IQs of prisoners and found that 30% of prisoners
were at or below the mental age of 12 (imbeciles). Unexpectedly, his control
group were army recruits who curiously also fell into the imbecile category at
47%.

• Concluded that “morons” should not be permitted to reproduce.

• Governments responded with legislation that institutionalized those with
“intellectual disabilities” and involuntary sterilization.
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 More Recent Biological Research

IQ Testing – compensating for cultural differences

Criminal Families – adoptions; separated twins
XYY “Supermale” – chromosome stud
Testosterone
Blood sugar levels
Allergies
Vitamin deficiencies
Environmental pollution

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 Summary

• Evidence supporting a link between biological or intellectual

deficiencies and criminal behaviour is weak.
• Researchers must be careful about using theories of biological
differences due to extremes of policy—for example, the eugenics
movement and the Nazi ideology.
• Assuming biological differences between groups can turn into a
rationale for their differential treatment, while ignoring social
structural variables that contribute to anti-social behaviour.

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Psychological Theories
of Crime

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Learning Objectives
Describe and critique different psychological theories used to explain criminal
behaviour, including:

–evolutionary theory
–psychoanalytic theory
–moral development theory
–Eysenck’s theory
–social learning theory
–operant conditioning theory
–antisocial personality
–psychopathy
–mental illness

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 Psychological Theories of Crime

• Examines criminality through theories of personality or learning that

account for a person’s behaviour in a specific situation.

• Most theories entail one of two assumptions:

1. Assumption of offender deficit
• Something is psychologically wrong with the offender.
2. Assumption of discriminating traits
• Offenders differ from non-offenders, especially in impulsivity and aggression.

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 Evolutionary Theory

• Seeks to understand human behaviour from a Darwinian perspective

of natural selection.
• Refers to reproductive fitness variance to account for high rate of
criminal offending among young men.
– Men are less risk-averse than women, especially during late adolescence and
early adulthood, when competition for mates is most intense.
• Critiques of evolutionary theory include the following:
– It normalizes and excuses criminal behaviour.
– The explanations are hypothetical, given our lack of knowledge of early human
behaviour.
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 Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud: Personality is
composed of three
forces

Ego: directs the

impulses of the id Superego:
Id: biological drives
and acts as a reality conscience
tester

Sigmund Freud
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Psychoanalytic theories
suggest that criminal
behaviour occurs when
the ego and superego
are unable to restrain
the id.
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 Psychoanalytic Theory

• Ego and superego (internal controls) develop through

successful resolution of conflicts at each stage of development.
• Crime results when the ego and superego are unable to control
the primitive, aggressive, antisocial instincts of the id.
• Criminality is caused by a person’s failure to progress
satisfactorily through the early stages of development.
• Superego is inadequately developed or deficient, and the
individual is susceptible to antisocial behaviour

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 Psychoanalytic Theory

It is tautological—(circular argument)
Proble aggressive acts are the result of
m impulses, but the evidence for
impulses is aggressive acts.

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 Theories of Moral Development
Jean Piaget
• Criminal behaviour can be understood by
focusing on how we develop (or fail to develop)
a sense of morality and responsibility.

• Jean Piaget (1932) studied children playing, and

concluded that:
• Moral reasoning was learned in stages, and
• Children go from egocentrism (because they lack
empathy) to cooperation (by age 11 or 12).

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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Universal Ethics

Greater Good

Law
Social Acceptance

Self Interest

Obedience
Kohlberg - Moral Development Theory and
Delinquency
Concluded:

• Juvenile delinquent’s moral judgement is at a less

advanced level than that of non-delinquents

• People with high moral development are more likely to

make individual choices and be less influenced by friends

• Education and rehabilitation programs that focus on

moral development can have positive effects on an Lawrence Kohlberg
inmate’s moral judgement.

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Eysenck’s Theory of Crime and Personality
• The dimensions of personality include
– extraversion vs. introversion (introspective/inhibited),
– neurotic vs. stable, and
– psychoticism. Hans Eysenck

• Extroverted (impulsive, aggressive), neurotic (anxious, restless) and

psychotic persons are more likely to be delinquent or criminal.
– Extroverts crave excitement, are impulsive, and have a weak conscience.
– Neurotic extroverts are difficult to condition positively.
– Psychotics have a propensity for violence. (lack empathy)

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 Eysenck’s Theory of Crime and Personality
• This theory explores how personality characteristics are
related to criminal behaviour.
• The theory is based on principles of classical conditioning.
• Deviant behaviour is inherently reinforcing, so children will
only refrain if punished.
• There is a need to pair deviance with pain or fear. This pain
or fear will serve as a deterrent.
• Delinquents and criminals do not develop this conditioned
response due to lack of effective conditioning or they are
less susceptible to conditioning.
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 Eysenck’s Theory of Crime and Personality

Eysenck’s theory shows how psychological and social variables can be

interrelated.

– Individuals with a psychological propensity to commit crime may be

socialized (conditioned) effectively in a positive social environment.

– Individuals with a low propensity for criminality may become criminal

if their environment is too permissive. (ineffective conditioning)

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 Social Learning Theory

• The central concept is cognitive functioning: the ability to think and

make choices.
• People learn new behaviours through modelling; vicarious learning by
watching others.
• Bandura (1986) posited that aggression was learned from three sources:
1. Family (parents who are aggressive/abusive),
2. Subcultural influences (for example, violence learned in tough
neighbourhoods from role models or peers), and
3. Symbolic modelling (for example, watching television violence, violent video
games).

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 Social Learning Theory

• Studies suggest a correlation between watching television

violence and aggression.
– However, the causal direction in this relationship is unknown.
(perhaps a preference vs. a cause)
• Research suggests that watching TV violence desensitizes, or
makes one more tolerant of it.
– Thomas et al. (1979): people showed less autonomic reactivity to
real-life aggression if they had first watched a violent TV show.

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 Social Learning Theory

Fear of punishment
may also be a
deterrent; this
includes

Legal
Albert Bandura: sanctions
The best deterrent to aggression
Social
and violence is more attractive sanctions
pro-social alternatives.
Self-
sanctions
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 Operant Conditioning

• This theory is based on work by B.F. Skinner.

• It posits that rewards and punishments can
greatly influence behaviour:
– Rewards reinforce a behaviour, and
– Punishment weakens a behaviour.
• Operant Conditioning may be used to change
antisocial behaviour of delinquents and criminals.
– A token economy is one example of a rewards-based B. F. Skinner
treatment program for delinquent youth.

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 David Farrington
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 Psychological Theories of Crime

Criminal vs. non-criminal

• Farrington: it is important to understand differences between offenders
and non-offenders.
– Criminality is the outcome of different social and psychological risk factors.
– The motivation to commit delinquent acts arises from a desire for material
goods or a need for excitement.
– Delinquent acts may also be influenced by psychological variables (for
example, individuals’ learning history or beliefs regarding criminal
behaviour).

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 Criminogenic Risk Factors

impulsivity hyperactivity
attention problems aggressiveness
a low educational attainment poor parental supervision
parental conflict an antisocial parent
a young mother poverty, and
a dysfunctional family

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 Antisocial Personality

• Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD)

– A key indicator of this disorder is a disregard for the rights of others, as well
as impulsive, irresponsible, and aggressive behaviour.
– It begins in childhood with lying, stealing, fighting, etc., as signs.
– In adolescence, indicators can include early or aggressive sexual behaviour,
drinking, and drug use.
– This continues to adulthood, though more extreme indications diminish
after age 30.
• Between 15 and 25% of the prison inmate population in North America
fit this category.
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 Antisocial Personality

• Hare (1991) developed the Psychopathy Checklist:

– It includes twenty traits and behaviours associated with psychopathy.
– It provides reliable and valid assessments of psychopathy.
– It is widely used for research and for making decisions in the mental
health and criminal justice systems.
– The traits on the checklist are strong predictors of violence and
recidivism (likelihood to repeat offending) in offenders and psychiatric
patients.

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Table 9.2: The Twenty Items of the Psychopathy Checklist

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 Antisocial Personality

• Psychopaths seem to be extroverts who do not learn fear

responses and hence do not learn from negative experiences.
– There is likely to be a neuroanatomical basis for this, such as
abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex.
• However; some studies show highly intelligent psychopaths are
neither violent nor impulsive and attain a high level of education.
– Criminals may not be representative of the population of
psychopaths.

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 Antisocial Personality
• Babiak and Hare (2006):

• Psychopaths fit well into the corporate world.

• Social manipulation makes them seem charismatic in the
hiring process.

• Like all predators, they like the action and rewards.

• Workplace psychopaths who are most often cited in the
media are investment bankers.

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Antisocial Personality - Outcomes
• As the basis for a theory of crime, APD and psychopathy have been
criticized for being tautological.
• The construct of psychopathy has been criticized for being too simple

• However, some consider psychopathy to be “the single most important

clinical construct in the criminal justice system” (Hare, 1998c, 99).
• There is disagreement on whether this disorder can be effectively
treated.

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 Crime and Mental Illness

• Some used to assume that all crime was a symptom of mental

illness. However, most now reject this thinking.
• The prevalence of mental disorder among prison inmates is higher
than the general population.
– Many inmates in Canadian prisons have substantial mental health
needs (in particular substance use disorders).
– Many of these individuals have co-occurring disorders (for example,
schizophrenia and substance abuse).

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 Crime and Mental Illness

• In recent years, there has been an increased involvement of those with mental
illness in the CJS.
• Police are increasingly encountering mentally ill individuals.
• The deinstitutionalization of those with mental illness has contributed to this
increase.
• Mentally ill persons are arrested more frequently than others, controlling for
the type of crime. However, they are less likely to recidivate than offenders
who do not have a history of mental illness.
• Police training to deal with the mentally ill varies across jurisdictions but is
generally minimal.
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 Crime and Mental Illness
• Does the increased contact of people living with mental illness with the
CJS indicate a significant relationship between crime and mental disorder?
Not necessarily, but studies do show:

– The presence of symptoms of mental illness affects the probability of arrest.

– Mentally disordered offenders on average showed lower recidivism rates
than other offenders.
– Mental disorder is a risk factor for predicting violent recidivism
– Most mentally disordered offenders are not violent and may have a
decreased risk of general recidivism.
– Those with mental illness are more likely to be the victims.
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 Crime and Mental Illness

Conclusion

• Theories of criminal behaviour that rely on models of

mental illness will not account for the behaviour of most
criminals.
• The mentally ill make up only a small proportion of criminal
offenders.

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 Critiques of the psychological approach

• There is little emphasis on positive characteristics of offenders.

– The focus is overwhelmingly on offender deficits, although there is a recent shift
towards recognizing offender strengths.

• It ignores the importance of situational and environmental factors on

individual behaviour
– However, recent research stresses situational and environmental factors.

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