TRENDS & THEORIES IN

ARCHITECURE

INTRODUCTION
ARCHITECTURE TIMELINE
 11,600 B.C. to 3,500 B.C. — Prehistoric Times
 3,050 B.C. to 900 B.C. — Ancient Egypt, Indus valley

 850 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Classical

700 to 323 B.C. — Greek

323 to 146 B.C. — Hellenistic
44 B.C. to A.D. 476 — Roman
 527 A.D to 565 A.D — Byzantine

 800 A.D to 1200 A.D — Romanesque

 1100 A.D to 1450 A.D — Gothic

 1400 A.D to 1600 A.D — Renaissance

 1600 A.D to 1830 A.D — Baroque
 1650 A.D to 1790 A.D — Rococo

 1730 A.D to 1925 A.D — Neoclassicism

 1890 A.D to 1914 A.D — Art Nouveau

 1895 A.D to 1925 A.D — Beaux Arts

 1905 A.D to 1930 A.D — Neo-Gothic

 1925 A.D to 1937 A.D — Art Deco

 1900 A.D to Present — Modernist Styles

 1972 A.D to Present — Postmodernism

 1997 A.D to Present — Neo-Modernism and

Parametricism
11,600 B.C. TO 3,500 B.C.
 Architectural discussions in traditional archaeology have focused
on building materials, construction techniques, and labor (in
terms of manpower needed in construction);on the adaptation of
house construction to different ecological conditions; on activities
within the building; on the form and style of the building in terms
of its ground plan and two dimensional division of space; and
on the structure and grammar of spatial distances between
buildings and between different elements within buildings .
 If the people who inhabited or used a building appear at all in
discussions of it, it is normally to make statements about
demographic variability, that is, about the number of people who
resided in the enclosed space based on its square footage and the
use of general correlations between family structure and use of
space.
PRE-HISTORIC
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
MATERIALS:

Animal skins, wooden frames, animal bones

CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

Existing or excavated caves

Megalithic, most evident in France, England and Ireland
DECORATION
Caves paintings in Africa, France and Spain
Sculpture
EXAMPLES OF PRE-HISTORIC
MENHIR

 A single, large upright monolith

 Serves a religious purpose

 Sometimes arranged in parallel rows, reaching several

miles and consisting of thousands of stones.
They are widely distributed across Europe, Africa and
Asia, but most numerous in Western Europe; particularly
in Ireland, Great Britain, Brittany and France, where there
are about 50,000 examples, while there are 1,200 menhirs
in northwest France alone.
 DOLMEN:

 Tomb of standing stones usually capped with a large horizontal

slab.
 A dolmen or cromlech is a type of single chamber megalithic
tomb, usually consisting of two or more vertical megaliths
supporting a large flat horizontal capstone or "table". Most date
from the early Neolithic (4000–3000 BCE) and were sometimes
covered with earth or smaller stones to form a tumulus (A
tumulus (plural tumuli) is a mound of earth and stones raised
over a grave / graves). Small pad-stones may be wedged
between the cap and supporting stones to achieve a level
appearance.
CROMLECH
 Enclosure formed by huge stones planted on the ground in
circular form
 Stonehenge, England (2800 – 1500 BC)

 Most spectacular and imposing of monolithic monuments

Outer ring, inner ring, innermost horseshoe-shaped ring with
open end facing east
Largest stones weigh 45 to 50 tons, came from Wales 200 km
away
Stones transported by sea or river then hauled on land with
sledges and rollers by hundreds of people, raised upright into
pits, capped with lintels
Genuine architecture - it defines exterior space

A solar observatory - designed to mark the sun's path during

sunrise on Midsummer Day
 Sarsen stones

bluestone Open end

s Facing East

Sarsen trilithon
stones s
Linte
ls

Stonehenge
TUMULUS / PASSAGE GRAVE
 Dominant tomb type
 Corridor inside leading to an underground chamber
 PRE-HISTORIC ARCHITECTURE
 Stone age
 Paleolithic (Old Stone Age )- appeared first in Africa
and are marked by the steady development of stone
Savage
tools
 Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age )- period of the Stone
Age intermediate between the Paleolithic and the
Barbarian
Neolithic periods, characterized by adaptation to
hunting, collecting, and fishing economy based on the
use of forest, lakeside, and seashore environments.
 Neolithic (New Stone Age) - characterized by the
development of agriculture and the making of
polished stone implements.
 Bronze Age

 Iron Age
NEOLITHIC ARCHITECTURE
 Neolithic architecture was said to have started in
southwest Asia.
 Used mud-brick to build house and villages.

 Houses were plastered and painted with pictures of

animals.
 A great example would be Stonehenge which is in
England.
 Most buildings of the time were basic, created out of the
materials the architect had (usually stone or wood) and
never reaching more then one story.
Stone walls

Mud Bricks

Naturally shaped stone roof

Natural or Artificial Caves
 Neolithic Architecture was used to build mostly
residential structures as the humans of the time began to
settle down. The earliest architects to have used this style
would have been citizens within developing cities such
as Mesopotamia.
HISTORIC/ANCIENT ARCHITECTURE
 Historic architecture can be framed in certain evident based
structures found all over the world. But it should be realized
that the time dating of these prominent developments are
highly unreliable.
 The major partners to understand the ancient or historic
architecture are:
 The Egyptian Civilization

 The Indus valley Civilization

 The Greek civilization

 The Hellenistic period

 The Roman civilization

THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
GEOLOGICAL INFLUENCE
 STONE – abundant building material except on
temples & pyramids
 Soft stone – limestone , sandstone , alabaster .
 Hard stone – granite , quartzite , basalt , porphyry
 SAND DRIED BRICKS – made up of clay &
chopped stone for pyramids & temples.
•DATE PALM – for roofing’s &
•PALM LEAVES – for roofing materials .
•ACACIA – for their boat
•SYCAMORE – mummy cases
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
CLIMATIC INFLUENCE:
Structure have no downspout , drainage , gutters due to
absence of rain . No windows to cut heat penetration and
sandstorm.
RELIGIOUS INFLUENCE
 Pyramids were built because they believe in “ Life
a f t e r Death “ & for the preservation of the dead
body.
 Pharaoh is not only king but also “god” both political &
religious ruler, when he dies he becomes “osiris”, god of
dead. They’re “monotheistic” in theory & “polytheistic”
in practice.
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
HISTORICAL INFLUENCE:
3 0 DYNASTIES – started from 3rd Millennium B.C. to
Roman Period. Egypt was part of Persian Empire for 2
Centuries, before the invasion of “ALEXANDER the
Great “.
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
 ANCIENT KINGDOM ( 1ST – 10TH DYNASTY)
Development of two types of tombs:
 Mastaba

 Pyramid
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
 SIMPLICITY
 MONUMENTALITY
 SOLIDITY OR MASSIVENESS
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
 SYSTEMS OF CONSTRUCTION:
 P O S T & LINTEL; COLUMNAR OR TRABEATED
system.
 FEATURES OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE:

 BATTERWALL - inclination from base to top of the

façade.
 HIEROGLYPHICS - use as ornaments, pictures &
writings from the walls
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
 EVOLUTION OF EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE:
 MASTABA:
 The word 'mastaba' comes from the Arabic word for a bench
of mud, and when seen from a distance a mastaba does
resemble a bench.
 Historians speculate that the Egyptians may have borrowed
architectural ideas from Mesopotamia since at the time they
were both building similar structures.
 The above-ground structure of a mastaba is rectangular in
shape with inward-sloping sides and a flat roof.
 Materials used were bricks made of sun dried mud
THE EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
 PYRAMIDS:
Evolved from MASTABA ; with four sides facing the
Cardinal points , they were made by 100,000 men
for 100 years.
 STEP PYRAMID – evolved from Mastaba

 BENT OR BLUNT PYRAMID – 2 degrees of

inclination of slope
 SLOPE PYRAMID – parts ( king’s chamber ,
Queen’s chamber , subterranean chamber, grand
gallery, airshafts.
STEP PYRAMID
BENT OR BLUNT PYRAMID
SLOPE PYRAMID
SLOPE PYRAMID
PYRAMID OF THE CHEOPS OR KHUFU (146.4 mts. High &
( 750 sq. ft. ) in plan
R O C K CUT TOMB OR ROCK HEWN TOMB

The Great Temple of Abu- Simbel

EGYPTIAN TEMPLES
 Montuary – built in honor of the Pharaohs
 C u l t – built for the worship of the gods, only hi gh priest can
enter in both types of temple.
 PARTS OF AN EGYPTIAN TEMPLE:

 Entrance Pylon – massive sloping towers fronted by an

obelisks known as gateways in Egypt .
 Hypaethral Court – large outer court open to the sky

 Hypostyle Hall - a pillared hall in which the roofs rest on

column.
 Sanctuary – usually surrounded by passages & chambers
used in connection with the temple service.
 Avenue of Sphinx – where mystical monster were placed.
CAPITALS & COLUMNS:

 Bud & Bell Capital

 Volute Capital

 Hathor – Headed Capital

 Polygonal Columns

 Palm type Capital

 Osiris Pillars

 Papyrus Capital

 Square Pillars
MOULDINGS
 “Gorge and Hollow Moulding “ The torus mould in
Egyptian temples were used to cover the angles .

Gorge and hollow

moulding
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 The Indus Valley Civilization existed through its early years
of 3300-1300 BCE, and it matured during the period of 2600-
1900 BCE.
 The area of this civilization extended along the Indus River
from what today is northeast Afghanistan, into Pakistan and
northwest India.
 The Indus Civilization was the most widespread of the three
early civilizations of the ancient world.
 Harappa and Mohenjo-daro were thought to be the two great
cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, emerging around 2600
BCE along the Indus River Valley in the Sindh and Punjab
provinces of Pakistan.
 Their discovery and excavation in the 19th and 20th centuries
provided important archaeological data about ancient cultures.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may had a
population of over five million people.
 It is considered a Bronze Age society, and inhabitants of the
ancient Indus River Valley developed new techniques in
metallurgy—the science of working with copper, bronze,
lead, and tin.
 They also performed intricate handicraft, especially using
products made of the semi-precious gemstone Carnelian, as
well as seal carving— the cutting
of patterns into the bottom face of a seal used for stamping.
 The Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked
brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply
systems, and clusters of large, non-residential buildings.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 HARAPPA CIVILIZATION
 Harappa was a fortified city in modern-day Pakistan that is
believed to have been home to as many as 23,500 residents
living in sculpted houses with flat roofs made of red sand
and clay.
 The city spread over 150 hectares (370 acres) and had
fortified administrative and religious centers of the same
type used in Mohenjo-daro.
 The modern village of Harappa, used as a railway station
during the Raj, is six kilometers (3.7 miles) from the ancient
city site, which suffered heavy damage during the British
period of rule.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 MOHENJO-DARO:
 Mohenjo-daro is thought to have been built in the 26th century
BCE and became not only the largest city of the Indus Valley
Civilization but one of the world’s earliest, major urban centers.
 Located west of the Indus River in the Larkana District,
Mohenjo-daro was one of the most sophisticated cities of the
period, with sophisticated engineering and urban planning.
 Cock-fighting was thought to have religious and ritual
significance, with domesticated chickens bred for religion rather
than food (although the city may have been a point of origin for
the worldwide domestication of chickens). Mohenjo-daro was
abandoned around 1900 BCE when the Indus Civilization went
into sudden decline.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 By 2600 BCE, the small Early communities had become
large urban centers. These cities include Harappa,
Ganeriwala, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan,
and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and
Lothal in modern-day India.
 In total, more than 1,052 cities and settlements have
been found, mainly in the general region of the Indus
River and its tributaries.
INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
TOWN PLANNING
 The acropolis and the lower cities:
 A typical city would be divided into two sections, each fortified separately.
One section was located on an artificially raised mound (sometimes called
acropolis) while the other level was on level ground.
 The acropolis contained the important buildings of the city, like the
assembly halls, religious structures, granaries and in the great bath in case
of Mohenjo-Daro.
 The rich and the ruling class lived in the multi-roomed spacious houses
and the poorer section lived in small tenements. The public building and
big houses were situated on the streets. The modest houses were situated
on the lanes.
 The lower section of the city was where the housing for the inhabitants
was located.
 It was here where some truly amazing features have been discovered. The
city was well connected broad roads about 30 meters long which met at
right angles. The houses were located in the rectangular squares thus
formed.
CITY WALLS
 Each city in the Indus Valley was surrounded by massive
walls and gateways. The walls were built to control trade
and also to stop the city from being flooded.
 Each part of the city was made up of walled sections.
Each section included different buildings such as: Public
buildings, houses,markets, craft workshops, etc.
GRID PATTERN
 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were laid out on a grid
pattern and had provisions for an advanced drainage
system.
 Streets were oriented east to west.

 Each street was having a well organized drainage

system.
 Each lane had a public welt.

 Street lamps were provided for welfare of public.

THE RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
 Encroachment on public roads or lanes by building houses
was not permitted. The houses can be divided into three main
groups.
 Dwelling houses,

 Larger buildings,

 Public baths.

 Smaller houses had two rooms, while larger houses had

many rooms. There were courtyards attached to big
buildings. There was little artistic touch in the architectural
design of the buildings belonging either to the rich or the
poor. They were plain, utilitarian and comfortable to live.
Some of the buildings were probably multi-storied.
 The residential buildings, which were serviceable enough, were
mainly made up of brick and consisted of on open terrace flanked by
rooms.
 These houses were made of standardized baked bricks as well as sun
dried bricks.
 Some houses even had paved floors.

 Most of the houses had baths, wells and covered drains connected
with street drains.
 Almost every house had its own wells, drains and bathrooms. The in-
house well is a common and recognizable feature of the Indus Valley
Civilization.
 Ordinary buildings had little ventilation arrangements, as doors and
windows were rarely fixed in the outer walls.
 Doors of entrance were fixed not on the front wall but on the side
walls. One could enter a house by the door facing the side lanes of
the house.
 The doors were made of wood. Large buildings had spacious doors.
BUILDING MATERIALS
 There was no stone built on the house in the Indus cities.
 Most of the houses were built of burnt bricks.

 But unburnt sun-dried bricks were also used. That

portion of the buildings where contamination with water
was possible, burnt bricks were used.
 For other parts sun-dried bricks were used.

 Most of the bricks were of equal size (which had a ratio

of length to width to thickness at 4:2:1).
 The staircases of big buildings were solid, the roofs were
flat and were made from wood.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
 The elaborate drainage system was a remarkable feature of the
civilization.
 The drainage plans of the Indus cities definitely establish the
separate identity or independent character of the Indus
civilization.
 No ancient civilization before the Roman civilization had such
an advanced drainage and sanitation system.
 Each house had horizontal and vertical drains.

 There were underground drains for the streets.

 These drains were covered by stone slabs.

 The soak pits were made of bricks.

 The house drains were connected with road drains.

GREAT PUBLIC BATH AND GRANARY
OF INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 The Granary is another interesting architectural feature. On the Stupa
Mound is the podium of the great Granary situated on the western flank.
 There is an impressive building which was used as a public bath. The
overall dimension of the Bath is 180 feet by 108 feet. The bathing pool
is 39 feet by 23 feet with 8 feet depth.
 There is a device to fill and empty the water of the bathing pool. There
are galleries and rooms on all sides of the bathing pool.
 Men used to bathe in the tanks as a ritual for the mother goddess to
whom the citadel belonged.
 This public bath was attached to the Mohenjo-Daro fort where upper
class people lived.
 Among the other large buildings there was a big hall which was perhaps
used for public meeting.
TOWN PLANNING CONCEPT
 Sophisticated and advance urban culture
 Street in perfect grip patterns in both Mohenjodaro and
Harappan
 World’s first sanitation system
 Individual wells and separate covered drains along the street
for waste water
 Houses opened to inner courtyards and smaller lanes
 Impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platform,
and protective walls
 Massive citadels protected the city from floods and attackers
 City dwellers-traders and artisan
 All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities
 Public wells supplied water, and bathrooms used an
advanced drainage system.
 A chute system took household trash to public garbage
bins.
 Used monumental architecture:

 very-large scale building

 walled cites, with fortified citadels

 always on the same scale
 palaces, temples
 Mostly cities built on a common plan
 a grid: always NS and EW axes
 with twelve smaller grids
 kiln-dried brick
AGE SYSTEMS
SOPHISTICATED DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Grid map of
Mohenjo-daro
Mohenjo-daro : aerial view
Mohenjo-daro view of the “Citadel”
looks like a small
tower, but actually it
is a neighborhood
well
The “Great Bath”
A public well in Harappa, or perhaps an
ancient laundromat...
A bathroom on a private residence
A large drain or sewer
view of a small, side street