SELECT BUINESS AND TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE
POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM
MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
LECTURE NOTE
Ermias Melaku(Assistant Professor)

2022
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 Chapter One

Introduction
Managerial decisions are an important part in the working
organisation.

The success or failure of a business is contingent upon the decisions

taken by managers.

Decisions pertinent to production and marketing of goods are shaped

with a view of the world both inside as well as outside the economy.

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 Introduction........
Rapid changes in technology, greater focus on innovation in products as
well as processes that command influence over marketing and sales
techniques have contributed to the escalating complexity in the business
environment.

This complex environment is coupled with a global market where input

and product prices have a propensity to fluctuate and remain volatile.

These factors work in tandem to increase the difficulty in precisely

evaluating and determining the outcome of a business decision. Such
evanescent environments give rise to a pressing need for sound
economic analysis prior to making decisions.

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Introduction......

• Economics is the study of how individuals and societies make choices

subject to constraints. The need to make choices arises from scarcity.

• From the perspective of society as a whole, scarcity refers to the

limitations placed on the production of goods and services because
factors of production are finite.

• From the perspective of the individual, scarcity refers to the

limitations on the consumption of goods and services because of
limited of personal income and wealth.

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Introduction......

Definition: Economics is the study of how individuals and societies

choose to utilize scarce resources to satisfy virtually unlimited wants.

Definition: Scarcity describes the condition in which the availability of

resources is insufficient to satisfy the wants and needs of individuals
and society.

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Introduction......

The concepts of scarcity and choice are central to the discipline of

economics.

Because of scarcity, whenever the decision is made to follow one

course of action, a simultaneous decision is made to forgo some
other course of action.

Thus, any action requires a sacrifice. There is another common

admonition that also underscores the all pervasive concept of
scarcity: if an offer seems too good to be true, then it probably is.

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Introduction......

Individuals and societies cannot have everything that is desired

because most goods and services must be produced with scarce
productive resources.

Because productive resources are scarce, the amounts of goods and

services produced from these ingredients must also be finite in
supply.

The concept of scarcity is summarized in the economic admonition

that there is no “free lunch.”

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 Introduction......
Goods, services, and productive resources that are scarce have a
positive price. Positive prices reflect the competitive interplay
between the supply of and demand for scarce resources and
commodities.

A commodity with a positive price is referred to as an economic good.

Commodities that have a zero price because they are relatively

unlimited in supply are called free goods

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Introduction......

What are these scarce productive resources? Productive resources,

sometimes called factors of production or productive inputs, are
classified into one of four broad categories: land, labor, capital, and
entrepreneurial ability.

Land generally refers to all natural resources. Included in this category

are wildlife, minerals, timber, water, air, oil and gas deposits, arable
land, and mountain scenery.

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Introduction......

Is air a free good?

Many students would assert that it is, but what is the price of a clean
environment? Inhabitants of most advanced industrialized societies
have decided that a cleaner environment is a socially desirable
objective.

Environmental regulations to control the disposal of industrial waste

and higher taxes to finance publicly mandated environmental
protection programs, which are passed along to the consumer in the
form of higher product prices, make it clear that clean air and clean
water are not free.

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Introduction......

Land generally refers to all natural resources. Included in this category

are wildlife, minerals, timber, water, air, oil and gas deposits, arable
land, and mountain scenery.

Labor refers to the physical and intellectual abilities of people to

produce goods and services. Of course, not all workers are the same;
that is, labor is not homogeneous.

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Introduction......

Capital refers to manufactured commodities that are used to produce

goods and services for final consumption. Machinery, office buildings,
equipment, warehouse space, tools, roads, bridges, research and
development, factories, and so forth are all a part of a nation’s capital
stock.
Economic capital is different from financial capital, which refers to such
things as stocks, bonds, certificates of deposits, savings accounts, and
cash.
It should be noted, however, that financial capital is typically used to
finance a firm’s acquisition of economic capital.
Thus, there is an obvious linkage between an investor’s return on
economic capital and the financial asset used to underwrite it.

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Introduction......
Entrepreneurial ability refers to the ability to recognize profitable
opportunities, and the willingness and ability to assume the risk
associated with marshalling and organizing land, labor, and capital to
produce the goods and services that are most in demand by consumers.
People who exhibit this ability are called entrepreneurs.

In market economies, the value of land, labor, and capital is directly

determined through the interaction of supply and demand. This is not
the case for entrepreneurial ability. The return to the entrepreneur is
called profit.

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Introduction......
OPPORTUNITY COST
The concepts of scarcity and choice are central to the discipline of
economics. These concepts are used to explain the behaviour of both
producers and consumers.
It is important to understand, however, that in the face of scarcity
whenever the decision is made to follow one course of action, a
simultaneous decision is made to forgo some other course of action.
When a high school graduate decides to attend college or university, a
simultaneous decision is made to forgo entering the work force and
earning an income

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Introduction......

Scarcity necessitates trade-offs. That which is forgone whenever a

choice is made is referred to by economists as opportunity cost i.e
which is sacrificed when a choice is made is the next best alternative.
It is the path that we would have taken had our actual choice not been
open to us.

Definition: Opportunity cost is the highest valued alternative forgone

whenever a choice is made.

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Scarcity and opportunity cost

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Introduction......

In market economies, almost all income generated from productive

activity is returned to the owners of factors of production. In
politically and economically free societies, the owners of the factors
of production are collectively referred to as the household sector.
Businesses or firms, on the other hand, are fundamentally activities,
and as such have no independent source of income. That activity is to
transform inputs into outputs.
Even firm owners are members of the household sector. Financial
capital is the vehicle by which business acquire economic capital from
the household sector.

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Introduction......
MACROECONOMICS Vs MICROECONOMICS
Scarcity, and the manner in which individuals and society make
choices, are fundamental to the study of economics.

To examine these important issues, the field of economics is divided

into two broad subfields: macroeconomics and microeconomics.

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Introduction......

As the name implies, macroeconomics looks at the big picture.

Macroeconomics is the study of entire economies and economic

systems and specifically considers such broad economic aggregates
as gross domestic product, economic growth, national income,
employment, unemployment, inflation, and international trade.

In general, the topics covered in macroeconomics are concerned with

the economic environment within which firm managers operate

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Introduction......

For the most part, macroeconomics focuses on the variables over which
the managerial decision maker has little or no control but may be of
considerable importance in the making of economic decisions at the
micro level of the individual, firm, or industry.

Definition: Macroeconomics is the study of aggregate economic

behaviour.

In general, the topics covered in macroeconomics are concerned with the

economic environment within which firm managers operate.

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????Macroeconomic issues are beyond the control of managers. Then,
why would it be essential for managerial decision makers to be aware
and knowledgeable of such macro issues?

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Introduction......
By contrast, microeconomics is the study of the behaviour and interaction
of individual economic agents. These economic agents represent
individual firms, consumers, and governments.
Microeconomics deals with such topics as profit maximization, utility
maximization, revenue or sales maximization, production efficiency,
market structure, capital budgeting, environmental protection, and
governmental regulation.

Definition: Microeconomics is the study of individual economic behaviour.

Microeconomists are concerned with output and input markets, product
pricing, input utilization, production costs, market structure, capital
budgeting, profit maximization, production technology, and so on.

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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS
WHAT IS MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS?

The discipline of managerial economics deals with aspects of economics

and tools of analysis, which are employed by business enterprises for
decision-making.

Business and industrial enterprises have to undertake various decisions

that entail managerial issues and decisions.

Decision-making can be delineated as a process where a particular course

of action is chosen from a number of alternatives. This demands an
unclouded perception of the technical and environmental conditions,
which are integral to decision making.

The decision maker must possess a thorough knowledge of aspects of

economic theory and its tools of analysis.

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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS.....
Almost any business decision can be analysed with managerial economics
techniques. However, the most frequent applications of these
techniques are as follows:

• Risk analysis: Various models are used to quantify risk and asymmetric
information and to employ them in decision rules to manage risk.
• Production analysis: Microeconomic techniques are used to analyse
production efficiency, optimum factor allocation, costs and economies of
scale. They are also utilised to estimate the firm's cost function.
• Pricing analysis: Microeconomic techniques are employed to examine
various pricing decisions. This involves transfer pricing, joint product
pricing, price discrimination, price elasticity estimations and choice of
the optimal pricing method.
• Capital budgeting: Investment theory is used to scrutinise a firm's
capital purchasing decisions.

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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS.....

Managerial economics is the application of economic theory and

quantitative methods (mathematics and statistics) to the managerial
decision-making process.

Simply stated, managerial economics is applied microeconomics with special

emphasis on those topics of greatest interest and importance to managers.
Managerial economics, used synonymously with business economics, is a
branch of economics that deals with the application of microeconomic
analysis to decision-making techniques of businesses and management
units.

Definition: Managerial economics is the synthesis of microeconomic theory

and quantitative methods to find optimal solutions to managerial decision-
making problems.
Managerial economics is thereby a study of application of managerial skills
in economics.
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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS.....

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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS.....

“Managerial economics is the application of economic theory and

methodology to decision-making problems faced by both public and
private institutions”.
McGutgan and Moyer:

“Managerial economics consists of the use of economic modes of thought

to analyse business situations”.
McNair and Meriam:

Managerial economics is “the integration of economic theory with

business practice for the purpose of facilitating decision-making and
forward planning by management”.
Spencer and Siegelman:

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MANAGERIAL ECONOMICS.....

“Managerial economics refers to those aspects of economics and its

tools of analysis most relevant to the firm’s decision-making process”.
Haynes, Mote and Paul:
By definition, therefore, its scope does not extend to macroeconomic
theory and the economics of public policy, an understanding of which
is also essential for the manager.

Managerial economics studies the application of the principles,

techniques and concepts of economics to managerial problems of
business and industrial enterprises.

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Characteristics of ME
1. Microeconomics: It studies the problems and principles of an individual
business firm or an individual industry. It aids the management in
forecasting and evaluating the trends of the market.

2. Normative economics: It is concerned with varied corrective measures

that a management undertakes under various circumstances. It deals
with goal determination, goal development and achievement of these
goals. Future planning, policy-making, decision-making and optimal
utilisation of available resources, come under the banner of managerial
economics.

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Characteristics of ME

3. Pragmatic: Managerial economics is pragmatic. In pure micro-

economic theory, analysis is performed, based on certain exceptions,
which are far from reality. However, in managerial economics,
managerial issues are resolved daily and difficult issues of economic
theory are kept at bay.

4. Uses theory of firm: Managerial economics employs economic

concepts and principles, which are known as the theory of Firm or
'Economics of the Firm'. Thus, its scope is narrower than that of pure
economic theory.

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Characteristics of ME
5. Takes the help of macroeconomics: Managerial economics incorporates
certain aspects of macroeconomic theory. These are essential to
comprehending the circumstances and environments that envelop the
working conditions of an individual firm or an industry.

Knowledge of macroeconomic issues such as business cycles, taxation

policies, industrial policy of the government, price and distribution
policies, wage policies and antimonopoly policies and so on, is integral to
the successful functioning of a business enterprise.

6. Aims at helping the management: Managerial economics aims at

supporting the management in taking corrective decisions and charting
plans and policies for future.

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Characteristics of ME

7. A scientific art: Science is a system of rules and principles

engendered for attaining given ends. Scientific methods have been
credited as the optimal path to achieving one's goals.
Managerial economics has been is also called a scientific art because it
helps the management in the best and efficient utilisation of scarce
economic resources.
It considers production costs, demand, price, profit, risk etc. It assists
the management in singling out the most feasible alternative.
Managerial economics facilitates good and result oriented decisions
under conditions of uncertainty.

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Characteristics of ME

8. Prescriptive rather than descriptive: Managerial economics is a

normative and applied discipline.
It suggests the application of economic principles with regard to policy
formulation, decision-making and future planning. It not only
describes the goals of an organisation but also prescribes the means
of achieving these goals.

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Scope of ME
The scope of managerial economics includes following subjects:
1. Theory of demand
2. Theory of production
3. Theory of exchange or price theory
4. Theory of profit
5. Theory of capital and investment.

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Importance of managerial economics
Spencer and Siegelman have described the importance of managerial
economics in a business and industrial enterprise as follows:

•Reconciling traditional theoretical concepts to the actual business

behaviour and conditions
• Estimating economic relationships
• Predicting relevant economic quantities
• Understanding significant external forces
• Basis of business policies

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Summary Questions

?? What is the concern of economics in general?

?? How is the concept of opportunity cost related with economics?
?? Macroeconomics Vs Microeconomics.
?? What is managerial economics? How is it helpful to managers?
?? Discuss the characteristics of ME.
?? Discuss the scope of ME.
?? What is the principal agent problem?
?? Differentiate B/N economic and accounting cost/profit

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