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Spectra
Atoms are very small,
Atoms are stable
Atoms contain negatively charge electrons,
Since the electrons do not crash into the nucleus but exist in
stable atoms, this suggests a planetary model with
negatively charged electrons circulating around a positive
core
Estimate of Nuclear Cross Section I
• Approximately one in 104 particles with energies of ~
107 eV are scattered backward from a one micron thick
sheet of metal foil
• If atomic spacing is ~ 1 A, then there are 104 atomic
layers so the probability of scattering by a single layers is
10-8
• This implies the nuclear cross section is one part in 108
of the atomic cross section
• Since the area goes as the square of the radius the
nuclear radius is smaller than atomic radius by a factor
of 10-4
• Since the atomic diameter is ~ 1 A, the nuclear diameter
is ~ 10-4 A
Estimate of Nuclear Cross Section II
• The model of a small positively charge nuclear core was
confirmed by a comparison with the angular distribution
to scattered -particles
• The incident -particles are assumed to have a uniform
distribution in space. Initial trajectories that are headed
towards the nuclei of atoms in the foil with random
separations from the nearest nuclear core
• Full trajectory calculated for each distance of the
trajectory line from the center of the nearest nucleus to
give the scattering angle
• From the distribution of distances of the -particles from
the positive core calculate distribution of scattering
angles
• Agreement found with measured scattering angle
distribution
The Rutherford Model
• “Planetary Model”
– Positive charge in the center of
the atom with almost all mass
concentrated within this
positive charge - nuclei
– Electrons - negative charge- are
attracted to the nucleus about
which they orbit (just as
planets orbit the sun due to
attractive 1/r2 force)
– Sizes
• nuclei ~ 10-14 m (calculated from
fraction of -particles that scatter
more than 900 in a foil of given
thickness)
• atom ~ 10-10 m (from the mass
density and number of atoms in a
mole – Avogadro’s number)
Difficulties with the Rutherford
Model
• Since electron travels in a
circular orbit, it is
constantly accelerated
(even though its speed is
constant.) Thus, the
electron emits EM
radiation, which carriers
away energy. The energy
of the atoms is reduced.
Thus the atom has a lower
potential energy and
moves closer to the ( Ze)e
nucleus Etotal
8 0 r
Thus, classically, the
Rutherford Atom is Unstable
Difficulties of the Rutherford Model
• Another problem is that the spectrum of the
emitted EM radiation would be continuous.
Classical approach gives the following expression
1/ 2
e c 2 2
1 1
3 3/ 2
3/ 2
16 0 m r r
• As r decrease, the emission wavelength changes
continuously, so this model predicts that the
emission spectrum of atoms is broad
• But sharp spectral lines are observed, not a
continuum
The Spectrum of Hydrogen
• At room temperature, hydrogen gas does not emit
light
• When heated to high temperatures, hydrogen
emits visible radiation
– distinct spectral lines are observed rather than the
continuous radiation spectrum expected classically
• Example of visible part of the spectrum
The Spectrum of Hydrogen
• Several families of such lines were observed
• They can be fit empirically by the Rydberg-Ritz
Formula
1 1 1
RH 2 2 , RH 1.0973732 10 7 m 1
k n
1 nk Enk E0 1 1
2 2
c ch hc k n
E0 7 1
1.09774 10 m RH
hc
The Spectrum of Hydrogen
1 jk E0 1 1
2 2
c hc k j
E0
1.09774 107 m 1 Ry
hc
Ionization Energy
• For hydrogen atom, with only one electron, the
ionization energy has a clear meaning:
– This is the energy required to remove the electron from a
hydrogen atom:
• H0 + 13.6 eV H+ + e-
• An atom is now ionized, since now have H+ instead of H0
• Similarly for any other atom, we can introduce the
ionization energy
– The minimum energy required to remove the most energetic
electron from the atom in its lowest energy state
• The energy required to remove the second electron is the
“second ionization energy”
– Question: Is it larger or smaller than “first” ionization energy?
Discrete Spectrum
• Bohr’s Postulates Predicted a Discrete Spectrum
• Consistent with the spectrum of hydrogen
• Direct proof found in measurements by James Frank and
Gustav Hertz in 1914
• Results consistent with spectra
The Franck-Hertz Experiment
• The heated filament ejects electrons into the tube, which can be
either evacuated (vacuum) or filled with Hg vapor