FALLACIES OF

RELEVANCE
A Fallacy is a defect in an argument. It is an error in reasoning
that arises or is committed in everyday conversations. Fallacies
can be found in deductive arguments. Formal fallacies re
determined fallacious by their form as well. In this module, you
will learn that there are fallacies which are not readily recognized
by looking at form alone but by looking at the content of the
argument as well. These are arguments which seem correct, but
on closer inspection are revealed incorrect.
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to ignorance)
-The Fallacy of this kind is committed because of the mistake in
reasoning that a proposition is true simply on the basis that it has not
been proven false, or that it is false on the basis that it has not been
proven true.

Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Appeal to authority)

-The Fallacy of ad Verecundian arises when the appeal is made to parties
having no legitimate claim to authority in the matter of hand.
Argumentum ad Hominem (Argument against the man)
-The argument that committed this fallacy attacks the person who asserted the
conclusion of the, but not the conclusion itself.

Abusive:
When the person`s character is disparaged, his or her intelligence is denied or
integrity is doubt; thus, the form of the attack is abusive because the character
of the person is irrelevant to the truth and falsehood of what the person stated.

Circumstantial:
In the circumstances form of the ad hominem fallacy, it is the irrelevance of
the connection between the belief held and the circumstances of those holding
it that gives rise to the mistake.
 Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to the Majority or
Appeal to emotion)
-The argument ad populum is the device for every propagandist. The
term ad populum literally means ``to the people.’’ This fallacy uses
expressive language and other devices to excite enthusiasm, excitement,
anger, or hate, instead of presenting evidence and rational argument.
Many advertisements use this deice for their products to sell.
Example:
 Movie A has earned 100 million in only four days. Watch it now!

 Be a part of history. Catch the personality D fever. Buy tickets now!

 About 85% of Filipinos subscribe to product Z. Are you a Filipino?
 Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appeal to Pity)
-This Fallacy, like the above argument, is an appeal to the
emotion of people. However, the ad miscericordiam evokes the
altruism and mercy of the audience to which the argument is
directed. Sometimes the strength of this fallacy lies on how
pitiful the situation where the person asserting the argument is
and the emotive response provoked by the argument.
 Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to force)
-The fallacy of appeal to force uses a strong arm, threat, or coercion to
compel an acceptance of a conclusion. While it seems that it is an obvious
fallacy, the use of language to coerce is done subtly. It may not be a direct
threat, yet it may convey a veiled threat. The appeal to force is an
abandonment of reason.

Ignoratio Elenchi ( Irrelevant Conclusion)

-The fallacy of ignoratio elenchi is committed when an argument
purporting to establish a particular conclusion is instead directed to proving
a different conclusion. The premises ``miss the point’’. The fallacy
succeeds by distracting the attention of the audience by urging with
enthusiasm the need for the objective defended by the premises.
 Fallacies of Presumption
There are some arguments whose mistake is to make
unwarranted assumptions to support a conclusion.
Through these assumed truths, the arguments turn bad and
can be misled. If inferences are drawn from the said
premises, then fallacies are committed, which are called
fallacies of presumption. Hence, there is a gap from the
premises to the conclusion especially through the
insupportable presuppositions.
 Plurium Interrogationum (Complex Question)
 This fallacy is asking a question in such a way as to presuppose
the truth of some conclusion buried n the question.

Take for example the following the question:

 Where did you hide the money you stole?
 How often do you cheat when you were studying?
 Non Causa Pro Causa (False Cause)
-This fallacy is committed by presuming the reality of a causal
connection that does not really exist. In Latin, this fallacy is
called non causa.

Observe the following examples:

 If you pass under a ladder, you will experience bad luck.

 A broken mirror causes bad luck.

 Petitio principii ( Begging the question)
-To beg the question is to assume the truth of what one seeks to
prove in the effort to prove it.

Take the following for examples:

 Human beings have inalienable rights because these rights
cannot be taken away from them.
 A statement is true if and only if it true.
 Accident and Converse Accident
-Accident and converse accident are fallacies if presumption
committed when a conclusion is asserted through hasty
generalizations.

Example:
 The natural law dictates reason to preserver life and not kill;
therefore, one must refrain from killing cockroaches as well.
 The Country`s policy for animal rights and welfare is
ineffective; therefore, all of the country`s policies are
ineffective.
 Fallacies of Ambiguity
It was discussed earlier that ordinary language is more or
less ambiguous. Fallacies of ambiguity are committed
when several meanings of a word or phrase have been
used in the premises but quite differently treated in the
conclusion. When the inferences drawn depend upon these
changes, the fallacies of ambiguity.
Equivocation
 The fallacy of equivocation is committed when one uses in the
premise(s) and uses the tern again in the conclusion differently in one
line of reasoning.

Amphiboly
 A proposition is Amphibolous when its meaning is indeterminate
because of the loose or awkward way in which its words are combined.

Accent
- An argument may be deemed invalid when it relies upon premises and
conclusion whose meaning may shift by a given emphasis on its parts.
Composition
 The term fallacy of composition is applied to two closely related
invalid arguments. The first is reasoning fallaciously from the
attributes of the parts of a whole to the attributes of the whole itself.

Division
-The Fallacy of division is the reverse of the fallacy of composition. The
first of division consists in arguing fallaciously that what is true of a
whole must also be true of its parts.