Génie Biochimique Et Enzymatique 2011-2012 Complete

UNITE D’ENSEIGNEMENT
GENIE BIOCHIMIQUE ET ENZYMATIQUE

credit load
BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING AND ENZYME
TECHNOLOGY

Pr. Emmanuel NSO

Docteur ès Sciences (Ingénierie biologique →Technologie Enzymatique)
Ingénieur Brasseur
Ingénieur Chimiste et des Industries Agricoles
ENSAI 2011-2012
1
BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
1. Definitions:

Biochemical engineering is that branch of
chemical engineering or biological engineering that
deals with the design and construction of unit
processes that involve biological organisms or
molecules, such as bioreactors.

Biochemical engineering is a supplementary option to
chemical engineering or biological engineering due to
the similarities in both the background subject
curriculum and problem-solving techniques used by
both professions. Its applications are used in the food,
feed, and pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and water
treatment industries.
2
Definitions:

Chemical engineering is the branch of
engineering that deals with the application of
physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics),
and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology
and biochemistry) with mathematics, to the
process of converting raw materials or
chemicals into more useful or valuable forms.

Modern chemical engineering is also
concerned with pioneering valuable new
materials and techniques - such as
nanotechnology, fuel cells and
biomedical engineering.
3
Definitions:
Chemical engineering largely involves the design,

improvement and maintenance of processes involving
chemical or biological transformations for large-scale
manufacture. Chemical engineers ensure the processes are
operated safely, sustainably and economically. Chemical
engineers in this branch are usually employed under the
title of process engineer. A related term with a wider
definition is chemical technology. A person employed in
this field is called a chemical engineer.
4
Definitions:
Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is
the study of the controlling of matter on an
atomic and molecular scale. Generally
nanotechnology deals with structures sized
between 1 to 100 nanometer in at least one
dimension, and involves developing materials
or devices within that size. Nanotechnology
may be able to create many new materials and
devices with a vast range of applications, such
as in medicine, electronics, biomaterials and
energy production. 5
Definitions:
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts a source fuel
into an electric current. It generates electricity inside a cell
through reactions between a fuel and an oxidant, triggered in
the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants flow into the cell,
and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte
remains within it. Fuel cells can operate continuously as long as
the necessary reactant and oxidant flows are maintained.
Fuel cells are different from conventional electrochemical cell
batteries in that they consume reactant from an external source,
which must be replenished – a thermodynamically open system
. By contrast, batteries store electrical energy chemically and
hence represent a thermodynamically closed system.
6
Definitions:

Biomedical engineering is the application of
engineering principles and techniques to the
medical field. This field seeks to close the gap
between engineering and medicine: It combines
the design and problem solving skills of
engineering with medical and biological
sciences to improve healthcare diagnosis and
treatment.
7
Definitions:
A bioreactor may refer to any device or system that supports a
biologically active environment. In one case, a bioreactor is a
vessel in which a chemical process is carried out which involves
organisms or biochemically active substances derived from such
organisms. This process can either be aerobic or anaerobic. These
bioreactors are commonly cylindrical, ranging in size from liters to
cubic meters, and are often made of stainless steel. A bioreactor
may also refer to a device or system meant to grow cells or tissues
in the context of cell culture. These devices are being developed for
use in tissue engineering.
On the basis of mode of operation, a bioreactor may be classified as
batch, fed batch or continuous (e.g. a
continuous stirred-tank reactor model). An example of a continuous
bioreactor is the chemostat.
8
Biochemical Reactors
1. Introduction:
Antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids, fine chemicals,

and foodstuffs, just as the detoxification of
industrial and domestic waste water, are
manufactured or carried out by biochemical means.
The heart of a biochemical process is the reactor.
In a bioreactor, the transformation of raw materials
into desired products is carried out by the enzyme
systems, living microorganisms or by isolated
enzymes.
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1. Introduction:
The reaction products are formed by three basic processes,
namely:
1. The product is produced by the cells either as
extracellular or intracellular. Examples of the former
include alcohols or citric acid production, and examples of
the latter are metabolite or enzyme production.
2. Production of cell mass, like baker’s yeast or single-
cell proteins for food industries.
3. Biotransformations, where the cell catalyzes the
conversion via dehydrogenation, oxidation, hydrogenation,
amination, or isomerization. Steroids, antibiotics, or
prostaglandins are produced by this approach.
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1. Introduction:
The type of reactor depends on:

• the nature of the process (including reaction kinetics),
operating conditions (namely, mode of operation and gas
liquid flow patterns), and
• physical and chemical properties of the substrates and the
microbe. A plethora of biochemical reactors are available
commercially, from which the most suited one could be
selected based on certain selection criteria.
11
2. The special features of a biochemical reactor
The special features required of a biochemical reactor are in
general:
i. reliable sterilization and ease of maintenance of sterility,

ii. rapid mixing (homogenization) of reactor contents,
iii. sufficient and economical oxygen supply to the bioculture
(aeration),
iv. good removal of heat of reaction,
v. efficient retention of the bioculture in the reactor, permitting
a high cell concentration, and
vi. sophisticated level of instrumentation to maintain constant
operating conditions.
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i. Good mixing is achieved by proper design of stirrer,
revolutions per minute (rpm), and stirrer motor.
1. Oxygen flow rate and correct design of gas distributor in the
reactor can ensure high gas-to-liquid mass transfer rate.
2. Reactors are provided with jacket and cooling coils to rapidly
remove the exothermic heat generated during the reaction, so
that enzymes or the organisms are not exposed to excessive
temperatures. As microorganisms are very sensitive to
medium pH, reliable process control is very essential in
13
bioreactors.
Biochemical rectors are made of:
• Stainless steel to maintain sterile conditions.
• Simple geometric shape, minimum number of

flanges, welds and measuring and sampling
nozzles, elimination of dead zones, and minimum
surface roughness are also very essential for sterile
operation.
• Valves are flush bottom diaphragm valves to avoid

dead pockets and facilitate ease of sterilization.
14
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION A REACTOR
3. What are the criteria for choosing a reactor?
Reactor selection depends on:
• the reaction kinetics,
• mode of operation of the reactor,
• nature of organism,
• and properties of the medium.
3.1. Mode of Operation

Reactors can be classified on the basis of mode of operation as:
• batch,
• continuous,
• fed batch,
• extended fed batch, or repeated fed batch.
15
Batch, continuous, and fed batch processes
In batch reactor:  and qS are at the maximum value and not
controlled.
In chemostat:  is controlled at  optimum
In fed batch reactor: qS is controlled.
batch fed
chemostat batch
16
A batch reactor has:
neither feed nor product streams. The substrates and biocatalyst
are introduced at the start of the reaction, the reaction
temperature and/or pressure raised in a preprogrammed manner,
maintained at those conditions for a specified amount of time (or
until the completion of the reaction), brought back to ambient
conditions again in a preprogrammed manner, and finally the
contents are discharged. The reactor is cleaned and sterilized
using steam or hot water before the next batch is charged.
In the continuous reactor,
- nutrients and organisms are fed and the liquid and gaseous
products or effluents are removed continuously, thereby
maintaining the reactor volume constant.
17
In the fed batch reactor,
• Feed is introduced either continuously or intermittently while
there is no continuous product removal. This leads to an
increase in reactor volume with time.
• The products are discharged at the end of the cycle. These

reactors are also called semi-batch reactors.
In the extended fed batch,

• The feed to the reactor is maintained constant so that there is no
change in substrate concentration inside the reactor.
In the repeated fed batch

• A small amount of fermentation broth is left behind as
inoculum for the next batch.
18
• Batch reactors have simple construction and are suitable for
small production, but may lead to increased batch cycle time on
account of downtime due to charging and discharging.
• Continuous reactors provide high production rates and better
product quality due to constant reaction conditions. Continuous
reactor can be tubular or a stirred tank.
In the tubular reactor the feed enters through one end of a tube
and the products exit from the other end. In the continuous
stirred tank reactor (CSTR), the products leave the reactor as
overflow. Also, the reactor contents are agitated to achieve good
mixing.
• Fermentors are operated in batch, continuous or fed batch
mode, where air is sparged continuously into the reactor, and
exhaust gases are removed continuously.
19
• Fed batch mode is desirable in fermentors when low glucose
concentrations(10 to 50 mg/l) are needed to maintain the
productivity of microorganisms.
• Continuous fermentors are not generally used due to the

difficulty of maintaining monosepsis conditions (i.e., preventing
contamination by foreign organisms) and challenges posed in
controlling the different phases of the growth curve of the
microorganism.
• In fed batch the feed rates and volume-vs-time pattern could be

varying, leading to varying substrate concentration inside the
reactor.
• In the extended fed batch the feed is continuous, thereby

maintaining constant substrate concentration.
20
Continuous bioreactors provide high degree of control
and uniform product quality than batch reactors.
Whereas the disadvantage are controlling or minimizing
the production of non-growth-related products and loss
of original product strain over time, if it is overtaken by
some faster growing one. In many cases a fraction of
the product stream is recycled back to the reactor inlet.
Recycle leads to higher conversions.
21
3.2. Role of Kinetic considerations
• Kinetic considerations dictate the reactor choice.
Mode of operation is immaterial for a zero-order
reaction, whereas batch or tubular reactor is
desirable for first-order or Michaelis-Menten-type
reaction kinetics.
• Continuous stirred tank reactor is ideally suited

for reaction with substrate inhibition,
• while the other two reactors can be used for

product inhibition.
22
3.2. Role of Kinetic considerations
A cascade of continuous stirred tank reactor followed by a
tubular reactor can be used if the reaction exhibits a combination
of autocatalytic (an initial low yield followed by a sudden increase
in the rate) and ordinary kinetic behavior. While autocatalytic
behavior predominates during the exponential growth phase,
ordinary kinetics will prevail during the stationary and death
phases. In type II and type III fermentations (primary metabolisms,
but the reaction rates could be complex; and a non growth-
associated production respectively) large rates of product synthesis
and substrate uptake are exhibited after the decline of the growth
rate.
Although a CSTR may be better from the viewpoint of biomass

production, a combination of CSTR-tubular design will maximize
product yield.
23
A cascade of continuous stirred tank reactor
24
25
3.3. Nature of Organism
The living cells used in bioreactors can be:
• bacteria,
• yeasts,
• hypha,
• fungi,
• plant or animal cells.
They differ in:
- the demands they make on the environment,
- nutrient supply and
- product formation.
This results in a wide range of requirements for the bioreactors and
the process layout. Stability of the strain determines the mode of
operation of the reactor. Mutations of the microorganisms can
occur under suboptimal conditions. Only strains that are sufficiently
stable can be used in continuous reactor.
26
Type of reactor
Type of reactor depends on whether the organism is aerobic or
anaerobic.
• In the breeding of aerobic organism, adequate amount of dissolved
oxygen must be ensured in the medium. Since the solubility of
oxygen in the medium is very low, it must be supplied continuously
and gas-to-liquid mass transfer should be maintained high. A
minimal critical concentration of dissolved oxygen has to be
maintained in the substrate to keep the microorganism active. The
critical oxygen concentration values are in the range of 0.003 to
0.05 mmol/l, which is 0.1 to 10% of oxygen solubility values in
water.
27
Effect of presence of salts on oxygen utilization
But presence of salts like NaCl decrease oxygen solubility by a

factor of 2. The oxygen utilization by the microbe includes cell
maintenance, respiratory oxidation for further growth
(biosynthesis), and oxidation of substrates into related metabolic
end products. Oxygen uptake rate for bacteria and yeast are the
highest (0.2–2 x 10-3 kg/m3/s), followed by fungi (0.1 to 1) and
rest of the biocultures (0.01 to 0.001).
Metabolic heat generation rates for fungi, bacteria,

and yeast are in the range of 2–20 kW/m3, and for other
biocultures, in the range of 0.02–0.15.
28
Influence of size and shape of cells
The size and shape of the cells also have an influence on the type
of reactor.
• Spherical cells are smaller and less sensitive to shear than

filamentous organisms. Small dimension also means a high
surface-to-volume ratio, which will lead to high rate of uptake
of substrate and oxygen leading to rapid growth. Hence the
reactor should be able to operate at very high transfer rates.
• Filamentous organisms generally agglomerate leading to low

surface to-volume ratio, low substrate utilization, and low
oxygen uptake. The low rate of oxygen uptake permits the use
of reactors, which disperse air only to a slight or moderate
degree.
29
Cells that form agglomerates are easier to separate from the media
and returned to the reactor; hence, they permit the continuous
operation. With low mechanical stress in the reactor, many
filamentous organisms (like mold or fungi), form agglomerates
interlocking with one another leading to high apparent viscosity of
the medium. When the mechanical stress is increased the same
organism may form pellets. This leads to reduction in the apparent
viscosity of the medium.
30
Many organisms tend to grow on surfaces as in the case of
metabolite producing organisms or those that are used in sewage
treatment.
• Surface reactors have to be used for systems that exhibit such
behavior.
• Film formation is generally not desirable, and if cells show such
a tendency, then stagnant regions at the surface must be avoided
by suitable reactor design.
31
Agitator tips can tear filamentous organisms. Also,
shear stresses arising in agitated vessels can cause
undesired effects on mycelial morphology and hence the
product yields. Tower-type reactors like air lift
bioreactors without agitation are suitable for such
bioorganisms.
32
Role of Substrate and Product in Reactor selection
The physical properties of the substrate and products
produced also have an influence on the selection of
reactor.
For example, if methane is produced excessively during

the reaction, then reactors with large interconnected
gas volumes should not be used, since methane air
form an explosive mixture.
In the case of volatile substrates, cocurrent flow with

little axial mixing or multistage units should be used in
order to minimize losses in the waste gases.
33
Role of Substrate and Product in Reactor selection
Higher paraffin has a reducing effect on the oxygen

transfer rate; hence surface reactors are unsuitable for
the fermentation of oil emulsions.
Stirred tanks with helical stirrer can be used for highly

viscous media.
Fine long threads in dilute suspension lowers the flow

resistance, and large particles or
fibrous materials may block openings. In this case
inserts with constrictions must be avoided.
34
Flow behaviors of cultures
Viscosity of the medium for fungi is in the range of 0.1 to
1.5 Pa s, and less than 0.1 for bacteria, yeast, and mixed
cultures.
Low-viscosity media presents no problems with respect to
mixing times and oxygen transfer rates.
When substrate or product is responsible for high
viscosity, then the medium generally has a Newtonian
behavior.
Whereas, if the high viscosity is due to the organism, then
such a system will exhibit a non-Newtonian type of
behavior.
35
Flow behaviors of cultures
For low-viscosity fermentations at 50 to 500m3 scale, a
bubble column reactor is chosen because it is the
cheapest, and at 220 to 10,000-m3 scale, an air lift
reactor is chosen because it permits controlled substrate
addition.
Large-scale stirred fermentors will require very high
agitator motors, which could be uneconomical. If the
viscosities can rise above 0.1 Pa s (mycelial biopolymer
fermentation), a stirred vessel is desired up to a volume
of 500 m3.
Excessive foam formation may lead to loss of material
from a fermentor. Foams could be reduced by adding
antifoaming agents or by mechanical means. 36
TYPES OF REACTORS
The biochemical reactors can be broadly classified into:
submerged and Surface reactors
In surface reactors the culture adheres to a solid surface

and oxygen is supplied from the gas phase to the
continuously wetted solid surface. Wastewater treatment
employs such designs.
In submerged reactors gas-to-liquid mass transfer is

achieved by dispersing the gas in the liquid
through continuous input of energy.
37
The type of reactors and processes
The reactors systems:

• Aerated stirred tank reactor 0.1 – 1000 m3 with cooling
equipment
• Bubble column reactor 0.1 – 10,000 m3 with airlift and
cooling equipment
• Bioreactors for immobilized cells/biocatalysts (packed
bed, fluidized bed, trickle bed)
The types of processes used are batch, continuous, and fed
batch systems. Mostly, batch and fed batch reactors are
used in industry whereas continuous reactors
(chemostats) are used in laboratories. 38
Classification of Submerged reactors
Submerged reactors can be divided into three groups
depending upon the nature of the energy input:
(1) mechanically stirred systems with agitators
(2) forced convection of the liquid using recirculating

pumps, and
(3) pneumatic operation by pumping compressed air

(bubble columns or airlift reactors).
39
Cross section of a fermenter for
Penicillin production ( Copyright:
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/webwise/spinneret/microbes/penici.htm)

40
Flow sheet of a multipurpose fermenter and its
auxiliary equipment
41
Stirred Tank Reactor (STR)
The simplest and widely used reactor is a stirred tank with baffles
42
TYPES OF STIRRERS
Hydrfoil impeller
Marine propeller, hydrofoil, or pitched blade turbine stirrer is used to

achieve axial motion.
Marine propeller Hydrofoil impeller pitched blade turbine stirrer
43
TYPES OF STIRRERS
Flat blade turbine, back swept, or Rushton turbine stirrers are used to
achieve radial motion. Rushton turbine is good for gas dispersion.
Flat blade turbine Rushton turbine stirrers
44
TYPES OF STIRRERS
Helical or anchor impellers is used for viscous substrates.
Helical stirrer or impeller

anchor impeller
45
TYPES OF STIRRERS
While low rpm ribbon agitator is good for ultra-high-viscosity
Double Helix Ribbon stirrer
46
TYPES OF STIRRERS
Anchor stirrer is good for high viscosity, blending, and heat transfer applications.
47
Baffled Stirred Reactors
In baffled stirred reactors,
complex flow patterns are
observed, which can be
overcome by providing
coaxially arranged cylindrical
tube (draught tube). The
circulating flow is well
defined, and these reactors
consume less power than the
conventional stirred tank
reactors. Also, the power
uptake is lower in overflow
operation than in the
completely filled state. 48
Stirred Cascade Reactors
Stirred cascade reactors
are column reactors in
which several sections
arranged above one
another are formed by
intermediate plates.
Mixing and dispersion of
gas takes place in each
chamber.
49
Plunging Jet Reactors
In plunging jet reactors, the gas is dispersed by the
free jet from the nozzle impinging perpendicularly on
the surface of the liquid. In jet loop reactors the liquid
phase is returned from the outlet of the reactor to the
inlet. Recycling can take place through a draught
tube placed inside the vessel. A circulation pump
produces the driving jet, with both the phases in
cocurrent. Submerged reactors of these types are used
for wastewater treatment. 50
Jet loop reactors
51
Perforated plate or sieve plate
cascade reactors
Perforated plate or sieve plate cascade reactors
have countercurrent gas–liquid contact, in which
the liquid flows down from one stage to another by
overflow pipes. The liquid collected at the bottom is
externally recycled back with the help of pump.
52
Air Lift Loop Reactors
In air lift loop reactors the circulation of the liquid is due to the
density difference between the mixed phases in the aerated tower
and the liquid in the down comer. These reactors have internal
draught tube, internal partition or external loop as shown in the
figure. The draft tube gives the airlift reactor a number of
advantages like preventing bubble coalescence by causing
bubbles to move in one direction, distributing the shear stresses
uniformly throughout the reactor and thus providing a healthier
environment for cell growth.
53
Air Lift Loop Reactors
Also circular movement of fluid through the reactor
increases the heat transfer rates. As the bubbles in the
draft tube rise they also carry the liquid up with them,
and when they disengage at the top, the liquid travel
down in the down comer section. The heating/cooling
jacket is located on the walls of the airlift reactor. A
reactor with an external riser will have the advantage of
having greater turbulence near the jacket and thus
better heat transfer efficiency. 54
Deep shaft reactors
Deep shaft reactors are 50–150 m
long and are made of concrete. They
are buried underground and are
used for sewage treatment. The air
in this reactor is not introduced at
the bottom, but in the middle. These
reactors are also suitable for shear
sensitive, foaming, and flocculating
organisms.
55
Bubble Column Reactors
Bubble columns are slender columns with gas
distributor at the bottom. Construction of bubble
columns is very simple, and higher mass transfer
coefficient than loop reactors can be achieved with
them. These reactors can be as large as 5000m3.
Since they have broad residence time distribution
and good dispersion property, they can be used for
aerobic wastewater treatment and production of
yeast. 56
Packed Bed Column Reactors
Packed bed column reactors are used in enzyme-
catalyzed reactions, sewage treatment or vinegar
production. The nutrient or substrate is evenly
distributed over the packing through distributor. Air
is introduced
countercurrent to the liquid flow. In enzyme-
catalyzed reactions, supported enzyme is packed in
the reactor tube.
57
Packed bed fermenter
58
Different types of Bioreactors
59
Quantification of Microbial Rates Microbial
rates of consumption or production
H2O
C, N, P, S source H+
biomass
CO2
O2 product
heat
60
Cell Kinetics and Fermenter (Biological Reactor) Design
Understanding the growth kinetics of microbial,

animal, or plant cells is important for the design
and operation of fermentation systems employing
them. Cell kinetics deals with the rate of cell
growth and how it is affected by various chemical
and physical conditions. Unlike enzyme kinetics,
cell kinetics is the result of numerous complicated
networks of biochemical and chemical reactions
and transport phenomena, which involves multiple
phases and multicomponent systems.
61
During the course of growth, the heterogeneous
mixture of young and old cells is continuously
changing and adapting itself in the media
environment
which is also continuously changing in physical and
chemical conditions. As a result, accurate
mathematical modeling of growth kinetics is
impossible to achieve. Even with such a realistic
model, this approach is usually useless because the
model may contain many parameters which are
impossible to determine. Therefore, we must make
assumptions to be able to arrive at simple models
which are useful for fermenter design62 and
Various models can be developed based on the assumptions
concerning cell 'components and population as shown in Table 6.1
(Tsuchiya et al., 1966). The simplest model is the unstructured,
distributed model which is based on the following two
assumptions:
1. Cells can be represented by a single component, such as cell
mass, cell number, or the concentration of protein, DNA, or
RNA. This is true for balanced growth, since a doubling of cell
mass for balanced growth is accompanied by a doubling of all
other measurable properties of the cell population.
2. The population of cellular mass is distributed uniformly
throughout the culture. The cell suspension can be regarded as a
homogeneous solution. The heterogeneous nature of cells can be
ignored. The cell concentration can be expressed as dry
weight per unit volume. 63
64
Besides the assumptions for the cells, the medium

is formulated so that only one component may be
limiting the reaction rate. All other components
are present at sufficiently high concentrations, so
that minor changes do not significantly affect the
reaction rate. Fermenters are also controlled so
that environmental parameters such as pH,
temperature, and dissolved oxygen concentration
are maintained at a constant level.
65
DEFINITIONS
66
DEFINITIONS
It appears that dCx/dt and rx are always the same,

but this is not true. The former is the change of
the cell concentration in a fermenter, which may
include the effect of the input and output flow
rates, cell recycling, and other operating
conditions of a fermenter. The latter is the actual
growth rate of the cells. The two quantities are
the same only for batch operation. 67
DEFINITIONS
The growth rate based on the number of cells and that
based on cell weight are not necessarily the same because
the average size of the cells may vary considerably from
one phase to another. When the mass of an individual
cell increases without division, the' growth rate based on
cell weight increases, while that based on the number of
cells stays the same. However, during the exponential
growth period, which is the phase that we are most
interested in from an engineer's point of view, the growth
rate based on the cell number and that based on cell
weight can be assumed to be proportional to each other.
68
DEFINITIONS
69
DEFINITIONS
Therefore, the growth rate defined as the change of

cell number with time is the slope of the CN versus t
curve, while the division rate is the slope of the log2CN

versus t curve. As explained later, the division rate is
constant during the exponential growth period, while
the growth rate is not. Therefore, these two terms
should not be confused with each other.
70
GROWTH CYCLE FOR BATCH CULTIVATION
If you inoculate unicellular microorganisms into a fresh sterilized
medium and measure the cell number density with respect to time and
plot it, you may find that there are death, as shown in Figure 6.1. They
are:
1. Lag phase: A period of time when the change of cell number is zero.
2. Accelerated growth phase: The cell number starts to increase and the
division rate increases to reach a maximum.
3. Exponential growth phase: The cell number increases exponentially as the
cells start to divide. The growth rate is increasing during this phase, but the
division rate which is proportional to dlnCN1 / dt, is constant at its maximum
value, as illustrated in Figure 6.1.
4. Decelerated growth phase: After the growth rate reaches a maximum, it is
followed by the deceleration of both growth rate and the division rate.
5. Stationary phase: The cell population will reach a maximum value and will
not increase any further.
6. Death phase: After nutrients available for the cells are depleted, cells will
start to die and the number of viable cells will decrease.
71
GROWTH CYCLE FOR BATCH CULTIVATION
72
Exponential Growth Phase
In unicellular organisms, the progressive doubling of
cell number results in a continually increasing rate of
growth in the population. A bacterial culture
undergoing balanced growth mimics a first-order
autocatalytic chemical reaction (Carberry, 1976;
Levenspiel, 1972). Therefore, the rate of the cell
population increase at any particular time is
proportional to the number density (CN) of bacteria
present at that time:
73
74
75
Factors Affecting the Specific Growth Rate
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
Batch or Plug-Flow Fermenter (Bioreactor)
An ideal stirred fermenter is assumed to be well mixed
so that the contents are uniform in composition at all
times. Another ideal fermenter is the plug-flow
fermenter, the analysis of which is analogous to the
ideal batch fermenter. In a tubular-flow fermenter,
nutrients and microorganisms enter one end of a
cylindrical tube and the cells grow while they pass
through. Since the long tube and lack of stirring
device prevents complete mixing of the fluid, the
properties of the flowing stream will vary in both
longitudinal and radial direction. However, the
variation in the radial direction is small compared to
that in the longitudinal direction. 83
The ideal tubular-flow fermenter without radial

variations is called a plug-flow fermenter (PFF). In
reality, the PFF fermenter is hard to be found.
However, the packed-bed fermenter and multi-staged
fermenter can be approximated as PFF. Even though the
steady-state PFF is operated in a continuous mode, the
cell concentration of an ideal batch fermenter after time
t will be the same as that of a steady-state PFF at the
longitudinal location where the residence time i is equal
to t (Figure 6.4). Therefore, the following analysis applies
for both the ideal batch fermenter and steady-state PFF.
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
Ideal Continuous Stirred-tank Fermenter (Bioreator)
Microbial populations can be maintained in a state of exponential
growth over a long period of time by using a system of continuous
culture. Figure 6.7 shows the block diagram for a continuous
stirred-tank fermenter (CSTF or CSTR). The growth chamber is
connected to a reservoir of sterile medium. Once growth has been
initiated, fresh medium is continuously supplied from the reservoir.
91
Continuous culture systems can be operated as
chemostat or as turbidostat. In a chemostat the flow rate
is set at a particular value and the rate of growth of the
culture adjusts to this flow rate. In a turbidostat the
turbidity is set at a constant level by adjusting the flow
rate. It is easier to operate chemostat than turbidostat,
because the former can be done by setting the pump at a
constant flow rate, whereas the latter requires an optical
sensing device and a controller. However, the turbidostat
is recommended when continuous fermentation needs to
be carried out at high dilution rates near the washout
point, since it can prevent washout by regulating the flow
rate in case the cell loss through the output stream
exceeds the cell growth in the fermenter. 92
93
94
95
96
97
Evaluation of Monod Kinetic Parameters
98
99
100
101
102
103
Example
A chemostat study was performed with yeast. The medium flow
rate was varied and the steady-state concentration of cells and
glucose in the fermenter were measured and recorded. The inlet
concentration of glucose was set at 100 g/L The volume of the
fermenter contents was 500 mL. The inlet stream was sterile.
104
Solution:
a.) Let's assume that the growth rate can be expressed by Monod kinetics. If
this assumption is reasonable, the plot of 1/µ versus 1 /Cs will result in a
straight line according to Eq. (6.35). The dilution rate for the chemostat is
105
Solution:
106
Solution:
107
Productivity of CSTF
108
109
110
111
112
Comparison of Batch and CSTF
113
114
115
116
MULTIPLE FERMENTERS CONNECTED IN SERIES
117
MULTIPLE FERMENTERS CONNECTED IN SERIES
118
CSTF and PFF in Series
Figure 6.14 shows the schematic diagram of the two fermenters
connected in series, CSTF followed bv PFF. The result of the
material balance for the first fermenter is the same as the single
CSTF which
119
120
121
Multiple CSTFs in Series
122
123
124
125
Example of Multiple CSTFs in Series
a. If you use one CSTF, what should be the size of the fermenter? What
is the cell concentration of the outlet stream?
b. If you use two CSTFs in series, what sizes of the two ermenters will
be most productive? What are the concentration of cells and substrate
in the outlet stream of the first fermenter?
c. What is the best combination of fermenter types and volumes if you
use two fermenters in series?
126
Solution to Example of Multiple CSTFs in Series
127
128
129
130
CELL RECYCLING
For the continuous operation of a PFF or CSTF, cells are discharged
with the outlet stream which limits the productivity of fermenters.
The productivity can be improved by recycling the cells from the
outlet stream to the fermenter.
131
PFF with Cell Recycling
132
133
134
135
136
137
CSTF with Cell Recycling
138
The cellular productivity in a CSTF increases with an
increase in the dilution rate and reaches a maximum
value. If the dilution rate is increased beyond the
maximum point, the productivity will be decreased
abruptly and the cells will start to be washed out
becausethe rate of cell generation is less than that of
cell loss from the outlet stream. Therefore, the
productivity of the fermenter is limited due to the loss
of cells with the outlet stream. One way to improve the
reactor productivity is to recycle the cell by separating
the cells from the product stream using a cross-flow
filter unit (Figure 6.19).
139
The high cell concentration maintained using cell
recycling will increase the cellular productivity since
the growth rate is proportional to the cell
concentration. However, there must be a limit in the
increase of the cellular productivity with increased
cell concentration because in a high cell
concentration environment, the nutrient-transfer rate
will be decreased due to overcrowding and
aggregation of cells. The maintenance of the
extremely high cell concentration is also not practical
because the filter unit will fail more frequently at the
higher cell concentrations.
140
141
142
143
ALTERNATIVE FERMENTERS
144
145
146
NOMENCLATURE
147
NOMENCLATURE
148
SUBSCRIPT
149
Problems
1) In a continuous culture of a bacterium running at D=0.345 hr-1
glucose is the limiting substrate with a residual concentration of 0.01
g/l. The yield coefficient based on glucose is 0.5 g cell/g glucose.
What will happen if the feed glucose is increased by 0.5 g/l while the
dilution rate is maintained at the same level. Plot the response of the
culture in terms of x, S and μ after the feed concentration change
until after new steady state is reached. Describe physically what
happens.
150
Problems
151
Problems
152
Problems
153
Problems
154
Problems
155
Problems
156
What are the value of rates?
Rates of consumption or production are obtained from mass
balance over reactors
Mass balance over reactors

Transport + conversion = accumulation
(in – out) + (production – consumption) = accumulation
Batch: transport in = transport out = 0
Chemostat: accumulation = 0, steady state
Fed batch: transport out = 0
157
How are rates defined?
kg.i / hour
Rate (ri) = amount i per hour / volume of reactor
m3  reactor
Biomass specific rate (qi)
kg.i / hour
qi = amount per hour / amount of organism in reactor kg. X
Thus: ri = qi CX
Substrate (-rS) = (-qS)CX

Biomass rX = CX
Product rP = qPCX
Oxygen (-rO2) = (-qO2)CX
158
Yield = ratio of rates
rate. j rj q jC X qj
Yij =
  
rate.i ri qiC X qi
YSX = rate of biomass production / rate of substrate

consumption [g biomass/g substrate]
YOX = rate of biomass production / rate of oxygen
consumption [g biomass/g oxygen]
159
DESIGN EQUATIONS
3.1 Batch Reactor
Since there is no in and out flow, whatever is produced is
accumulated inside the reactor at constant volume. The batch
reaction time is given by:
160
Batch Reactor
where CA(0) and CA(t) are the initial and final concentrations of
the substrate, respectively, inside the rector and rA is the reaction

rate.
The rate equation could be a simple one of the form kCnA or of

the Michaelis-Menten type. The total batch cycle time not only
depends on the batch reaction time but also on the time required
for charging the reactor, discharging the contents, reactor
cleaning, and heating and cooling the contents. The reactor
volume depends on the annual production. 161
Fed Batch Reactor
3.2. Fed Batch Reactor
In the fed batch reactor there is only an inflow, but no outflow,
leading to a change in reaction volume (V) with time. The feed
flow is intermittent leading to fluctuating concentration inside
the vessel. The mass balance equation is given as:
Fi and CAi are the inlet flow rate and input concentration.
162
Fed batch fermentation
Start feeding
CSO
Feeding phase under
CS Batch phase substrate limited conditions
CS = 1 – 50 mg/l.
CSO  5000 –
20000 mg/l
time
In substrate limited feeding phase, CS is very low. Thus,

one can use the pseudo steady state condition for
substrate mass balance
163
Extended Fed Batch
3.3. Extended Fed Batch
Here the reactor feed is maintained constant leading to
constant substrate concentration (i.e., dCA/dt = 0). Then the
mass balance equation simplifies to
164
Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
3.4. Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Here the inlet and outlet flow rates are assumed equal ( F ), and hence the
reactor volume is constant. The concentration of the out going fluid (C 0)

A
is assumed to be that of the concentration of the fluid
inside the vessel. (CA0 - CAi) is also called conversion.
The reactor residence time is given as
165
Plug Flow Reactor
3.5. Plug Flow Reactor
In an ideal reactor the continuous phase flows as a plug: hence,

the residence time is given as
166
Monod Chemostat
The relationship between the specific growth rate and the
substrate concentration is similar to the Michaelis-Menten
equation for enzyme-catalyzed reaction namely,
Often the feed stream of a continuous unit may contain only

nutrient, so that x0 = 0. In such a situation D = μ, and the exit cell
and substrate concentrations are given as
167
Monod Chemostat
As the dilution rate is increased, the exit cell concentration (x)
decreases, and at a certain value of D, x reaches zero, which is
termed as wash out. The value of D at wash out is given as
The rate of cell production per unit reactor volume is

equal to Dxsf. The maximum cell production rate is given
as
168
3.7. Recycle Reactor
3.7. Recycle Reactor When a part of the product stream is recycled
back to the reactor, and if the feed does not contain any cells then
where f is the recycle ratio. The exit cell and substrate concentrations
are given as
Higher conversion (or lower CAsf ) could be achieved by

increasing the recycle ratio f. Also higher cell concentration could
be achieved through recycle.
169
Ch4. Bioprocess Development: An Interdisciplinary Challenge
The Notion of Bioprocessing
*Bioprocessing is an essential part of many:

- food,
- chemical and
- pharmaceutical industries.
* Bioprocess operations make use of:
- microbial,
- animal and
- plant cells and components of cells such as enzymes to manufacture new products and destroy harmful wastes.
170
• Although new products and processes can be conceived and
• partially developed in the laboratory, bringing modern biotechnology to
industrial fruition requires engineering skills
• and know-how.
• Biological systems can be complex and difficult
• to control; nevertheless, they obey the laws of chemistry
• and physics and are therefore amenable to engineering analysis.
• Substantial engineering input is essential in many aspects
• of bioprocessing, including:
– design and operation of bioreactors,
– sterilisers and product-recovery equipment,
– development of systems for process automation and control, and
– efficient and safe layout of fermentation factories.
– Defintion of Bioprocess engineering:

• Bioprocess engineering, is the study of engineering principles
applied to processes involving cell or enzyme catalysts. 171
• The role of microorganisms
– The use of microorganisms to transform biological
materials for production of fermented foods has its
origins in antiquity.
– Since then, bioprocesses have been developed for an
enormous range of commercial products, from:
• relatively cheap materials such as
industrial alcohol and organic solvents,
• to expensive specialty chemicals such as antibiotics,
therapeutic proteins and vaccines.
Industrially-useful enzymes and living cells such as
bakers'and brewers'yeast are also commercial products of
bioprocessing.
172
Major products of biological processing
• Table 1.1 gives examples of bioprocesses employing whole
cells.
– Typical organisms used and the approximate market size
• for the products are also listed.
• The table is by no means exhaustive; not included are:
• processes for wastewater treatment,
• bioremediation, microbial mineral recovery and
• manufacture of traditional foods and beverages such as yoghurt,
bread, vinegar, soy sauce, beer and wine.
Industrial processes employing enzymes are also not listed in the
Table These include:
- Brewing, baking, confectionery manufacture, fruit-juice
clarification and antibiotic transformation.
- Large quantities of enzymes are used commercially to convert
starch into fermentable sugars which serve as starting materials
for other bioprocesses.
173
174
175
176
177
Steps in Bioprocess Development: A Typical New
Product From Recombinant DNA
• The interdisciplinary nature of bioprocessing is evident
if we look at the stages of development required for a
complete industrial process. As an example, consider:
• The manufacture of a new recombinant-DNA-derived
product such as:
– insulin,
– growth hormone or
– interferon.
As shown in Figure 1.1, several steps are required to convert the
idea of the product into commercial
• reality; these stages involve different types of scientific
• expertise. 178
Steps in Bioprocess Development: A Typical New
Product From Recombinant DNA
• The first stages of bioprocess development (Steps 1-11) are
• Concerned:
– with genetic manipulation of the host organism;
– in this case, a gene from animal DNA is cloned into Escherichia Coil.
• Genetic engineering is done in laboratories on a small
• scale by scientists trained in molecular biology and biochemistry.
• Tools of the trade include:
• Petri dishes,
• micropipettes,
• microcentrifuges,
• nano-or microgram quantities of restriction enzymes, and
• electrophoresis gels for DNA and protein fractionation.
• In terms of bioprocess development, parameters of major importance
are:
• stability of the constructed strains and
179
• level of expression of the desired product.
Steps 1-11
180
Measure of the growth and production characteristics of the cells (Step 1)
• After cloning, the growth and production

characteristics of the cells must be measured as a
function of culture environment (Step 12).
• Practical skills in:
– microbiology and kinetic analysis are required;
– small-scale culture is mostly carried out using shake
flasks of 250-ml to 1-1itre capacity.
– Medium composition, pH, temperature and other
environmental conditions allowing optimal growth and
productivity are determined.
– Calculated parameters such as: cell growth rate,
specific productivity and product yield are used to describe
performance of the organism. 181
Step 12
182
Step 13
• Once the culture conditions for production are known:
– scale-up of the process starts. The first stage may be a 1- or 2-
1itre bench-top bioreactor equipped with instruments for
measuring and adjusting temperature, pH, dissolved-oxygen
concentration, stirrer speed and other process variables
(Step13).
183
A reactor providing conditions of optimal activity of cells is
of prime concern
Conditions of optimal activity of cells

• Situation is assessed using measured and calculated parameters such
as:
– mass-transfer coefficients,
– mixing time,
– gas hold-up,
– rate of oxygen uptake,
– power number,
– impeller
– shear-rate, and
– many others.
It must also be decided whether
• the culture is best operated as a batch, semi-batch or continuous process;
• experimental results for culture performance under various modes of reactor operation
may be examined. 184
Step 14
• The viability of the process as a
commercial venture is of great
interest; information about activity of
the cells is used in further
calculations to determine economic
feasibility. Following this stage of
process development, the system is
scaled up again to a pilot-scale
bioreactor (Step 14). Engineers
trained in bioprocessing are normally
involved in pilot-scale operations. A
vessel of capacity 100-1000 litres is
built according to specifications
determined from the bench-scale
prototype. 185
Step 14
• The design is usually similar to that which
worked best on the smaller scale. The aim of
pilot-scale studies is to examine the response
of cells to scale-up. Changing the size of the
equipment seems relatively trivial; however,
loss or variation
• of performance often occurs. Even though :
– the geometry of the reactor,
– method of aeration and mixing,
– impeller design and
– other features may be similar in small and large
fermenters, the effect on activity of cells can be
great. Loss of productivity following scale-up may
or may not be recovered; economic projections
often need to be re-assessed as a result of pilot-
scale findings. If the scale-up step is completed
successfully, design of the industrial-scale
operation commences (Step 15). This part of
process development is clearly in the territory
of bioprocess engineering. 186
Design of auxiliary service facilities
• As well as the reactor itself, all of the auxiliary service
facilities must be designed and tested. These include:
– air supply and sterilisation equipment,
– steam generator and supply lines,
– medium preparation and sterilisation facilities,
– cooling-water supply and process-control network.
Particular attention is required to ensure the
fermentation can be carried out aseptically.
When recombinant cells or pathogenic organisms
are involved, design of the process must also
reflect containment and safety requirements.
187
Product recovery (Step 16), also known as
downstream processing.
• An important part of the total process is product
recovery (Step 16), also known as downstream
processing. After leaving the fermenter, raw broth
is treated in a series of steps to produce the final
product. Product recovery is often difficult
• and expensive; for some recombinant-DNA-
derived products, purification accounts for 80-
90% of the total processing cost. Actual procedures
used for downstream processing depend on:
• the nature of the product and the broth;
physical, chemical or biological methods may be employed.
188
Fermentation processes
substrate products
fermenter Downstream
processing
wastes
The upstream processing costs about 20 – 50 %, whereas the
downstream processing costs about 50-80 %
189
Step 16
• Many operations which are standard in the laboratory become
uneconomic or impractical on an industrial scale. Commercial
procedures include:
– filtration,
– centrifugation and flotation for separation of cells from the liquid,
– mechanical disruption of the cells if the product is intracellular,
– solvent extraction,
– chromatography,
– membrane filtration,
– adsorption,
– crystallisation and
– drying.
• Disposal of effluent after removal of the desired product must
• also be considered.
• Like bioreactor design, techniques applied industrially for
downstream processing are first developed and tested using
small-scale apparatus. Scientists trained in:
– chemistry,
– biochemistry,
– chemical engineering and
– industrial chemistry play important roles in designing product
recovery and purification systems.
190
Step 17
• After the product has been isolated in sufficient purity it is
packaged and marketed (Step 17). For new
pharmaceuticals such as recombinant human growth
hormone or insulin, medical and clinical trials are required
to test the efficacy of the product. Animals are used first,
then humans. Only after these trials are carried out and
the safety of the product established can it be released
for general health-care application. Other tests are
required for food products. Bioprocess engineers with a
detailed knowledge of the production process are often
involved in documenting manufacturing procedures for
submission to regulatory authorities. Manufacturing
standards must be met; this is particularly the case for
recombinant products where a greater number of safety and
precautionary measures is required. As shown in this
example, a broad range of disciplines is involved in
bioprocessing. Scientists working in this area are
constantly confronted with: biological, chemical, physical,
engineering and sometimes medical questions.
191
Figure 1.1 Steps in development of a complete bioprocess for
chemical manufacture of a new recombinant –DNA-derived product
192
Ch 5. Material Balances
• Thermodynamic Preliminaries
• Thermodynamics is a fundamental branch
of science dealing
• with the properties of matter.
Thermodynamic principles are useful in
setting up material balances.
• System and Process

• In thermodynamics, a system consists of
any matter identified
• for investigation. As indicated in Figure
4.1, the system is set
• apart from the surroundings, which are the
remainder of the
• universe, by a system boundary. The
system boundary may be real and tangible,
such as the walls of a beaker or
fermenter, or imaginary. 193
System and Process
• If the boundary does not allow mass to pass from
• system to surroundings and vice versa, the system is a closed
• system with constant mass. Conversely, a system able to
• exchange mass with its surroundings is an open system.
• A process causes changes in the system or surroundings.
• Several terms are commonly used to describe processes.
• (i) A batch process operates in a closed system. All materials
• are added to the system at the start of the process; the
• system is then closed and products removed only when
• the process is complete.
• (ii) A semi-batch process allows either input or output of mass, but not both.
• (iii) Arid-batch process allows input of material to the system
• but not output.
• (iv) A continuous process allows matter to flow in and out of the system. If rates
of mass input and output are equal, continuous processes can be operated
indefinitely.
194
Steady State and Equilibrium
• A) Steady State
• If all properties of a system, such as temperature, pressure,
• concentration, volume, mass, etc. do not vary with time, the
• process is said to be at steady state. Thus, if we monitor any
• variable of a steady-state system, its value will be unchanging
• with time. According to this definition of steady state, batch,
fedbatch and semi-batch processes cannot operate under
• steady-state conditions.
– Mass of the system is either increasing or decreasing with time
during fed-batch and semi-batch processes;
– in batch processes, even though the total mass is constant,
changes occurring inside the system cause the system properties to
vary with time. Such processes are called transient or unsteady-
state processes. 195
Steady state or transient
• On the other hand, continuous processes may be either steady state
or transient. It is usual to run continuous processes as close to
steady state as possible; however, unsteady-state conditions will
exist during start-up and for some time after any change in
operating conditions.
• Steady state is an important and useful concept in engineering
analysis. However, it is often confused with another thermodynamic
term, equilibrium.
• B) A system at equilibrium is:
– one in which all opposing forces are exactly counter-balanced so that the
properties of the system do not change with time.
– From experience we know that systems tend to approach an equilibrium
condition when they are isolated from their surroundings.
196
A system at equilibrium
• At equilibrium there is no net change in either the system or
the universe. Equilibrium implies that there is no net driving
force for change; the energy of the system is at a minimum and,
in rough terms, the system is 'static', 'unmoving' or 'inert'. For
example, when liquid and vapour are in equilibrium in a closed
vessel, although there may be constant exchange of molecules
between the phases, there is no net change in either the system
or the surroundings. To convert raw materials into useful
products there must be an overall change in the universe.
197
A system at equilibrium
• Because systems at equilibrium produce no net change,
equilibrium is of little value in processing operations. The best
strategy is to avoid equilibrium by continuously disturbing the
system in such a way that raw material will always be undergoing
transformation into the desired product.
• In continuous processes at steady state,
– mass is constantly exchanged with the surroundings; this disturbance
drives the system away from equilibrium so that a net change in both the
system and the universe can occur.
Largescale equilibrium does not often occur in engineering systems; steady
states are more common.
198
Law of Conservation of Mass
199
Law of Conservation of Mass
(4.1)
• The accumulation term in the above equation can be either
• positive or negative; negative accumulation represents
depletion
• of pre-existing reserves. Eq. (4.1) is known as the general
• mass-balance equation. The mass referred to in the equation
• can be total mass, mass of a particular molecular or atomic
species,
• or biomass. Use of Eq. (4.1) is illustrated in Example 4.1.
200
Flow sheet for a mass balance on glucose
201
General mass-balance equation
• Ex. 1. :
• A continuous process is set up for treatment of wastewater. Each day, 10 5 kg cellulose
and 10 3 kg bacteria enter in the feed stream, while 10 4 kg cellulose and 1.5 x 10 4 kg
bacteria leave in the effluent. The rate of cellulose digestion by the bacteria is 7 x10 4
kg d -1. The rate of bacterial growth is 2 x 10 4 kg d-l; the rate of cell death by lysis is 5
x 10 2 kg d -1. Write balances for cellulose and bacteria in the system.
• Solution:
• Cellulose is not generated by the process, only consumed. Using a basis
of 1 day, the cellulose balance in kg from Eq. (4.1) is:
• (10 5 - 10 4 + 0 - 7 x 10 4) = accumulation.
• Therefore, 2 x 10 4 kg cellulose accumulates in the system each day.
• Performing the same balance for bacteria:
• (10 3 - 1.5 x 10 4 + 2 x 10 4 - 5 x 10 2) = accumulation.
• Therefore, 5.5 x 10 3 kg bacterial cells accumulate in the system each
day. 202
Procedure For Material-Balance Calculations
• The same procedures are used as a basis for energy balances.
• These points are essential:
• (i) Draw a clear process flow diagram showing all relevant information.
• (ii) Select a set of units and state it clearly.
• (iii) Select a basis for the calculation and state it clearly. When
approaching mass-balance problems it is helpful to focus on a specific
quantity of material entering or leaving the system. For continuous
processes at steady state we usually base the calculation on the amount
of material entering or leaving the system within a specified period of
time. For batch or semi-batch processes, it is convenient to use either
the total amount of material fed to the system or the amount
withdrawn at the end.
• (iv) State all assumptions applied to the problem.
• (v) Identify which components of the system, if any, are involved in
reaction.
203
Units
• Several systems of units for expressing the magnitude of physical
variables have been devised through the ages. The metric system
of units originated from the National Assembly of France in
1790. In 1960 this system was rationalised, and the SI or Systeme
International d'Unités was adopted as the international
standard. Unit names and their abbreviations have been
standardised; according to SI convention, unit abbreviations are
the same for both singular and plural and are not followed by a
period. SI prefixes used to indicate multiples and
• sub-multiples of units are listed in Table 2.4.
204
Units
205
Units
• Despite widespread use of SI units, no single system of units has
universal application. In particular, engineers in the USA continue
to apply British or imperial units. In addition, many physical
property data collected before 1960 are published in lists and
tables using non-standard units.
• Familiarity with both metric and non-metric units is necessary.
Many units used in engineering such as the slug (1 slug - 14.5939
kilograms), dram (1 dram- 1.77185 grams), stoke (a unit of
kinematic viscosity), poundal (a unit of force) and erg (a unit of
energy), are probably not known to you. Although no longer
commonly applied, these are legitimate units which may appear in
engineering reports and tables of data.
206
Units
• In calculations it is often necessary to convert units. Units are
changed using conversion factors. Some conversion factors, such
as 1 inch - 2.54 cm and 2.20 lb = 1 kg, you probably already
know. Tables of common conversion factors are given in the
Table below. Unit conversions are not only necessary to convert
imperial units to metric; some physical variables have several
metric units in common use. For example, viscosity may be
reported as centipoise or kg h-1 m-1; pressure may be given in
standard atmospheres, pascals, or millimetres of mercury.
Conversion of units seems simple enough; however difficulties can
arise when several variables are being converted in a single
equation. Accordingly, an organized mathematical approach is
needed.
207
conversion factors
208
conversion factors
209
conversion factors
210
conversion factors
211
Dimensions and Units
212
213
214
215
conversion factors
216
Conversion of units
• For each conversion factor, a unity bracket can be derived.
• The value of the unity bracket, as the name suggests, is unity. As an example,
• 1 lb = 453.6 g(2.10)
• can be converted by division of both sides of the equation by 1 lb to give a unity
bracket denoted by I I:
Similarly, division of both sides of Eq. (2.10) by 453.6 g gives another

unity bracket:
To calculate how many pounds are in 200 g, we can multiply 200 g by

the unity bracket in Eq. (2.12) or divide 200 g by the unity bracket in
Eq. (2.11). This is permissible since the value 217
Conversion of units
218
Conversion of units
219
Conversion of units
220
Conversion of units
• Example 2.3 Ideal gas law
• Gas leaving a fermenter at close to 1 atm pressure and 25°C has the following
composition: 78.2% nitrogen, 19.2% oxygen, 2.6% carbon dioxide. Calculate:
• (a) the mass composition of the fermenter off-gas; and
• (b) the mass of CO 2 in each cubic metre of gas leaving the fermenter.
Solution:
Molecular weights: nitrogen = 28
oxygen =32
carbon dioxide =44.
221
Conversion of units
222
Conversion of units
223
Setting up a flow sheet
• Ex. 2. :
• Humid air enriched with oxygen is prepared for a gluconic acid
fermentation. The air is prepared in a special humidifying chamber.
1.5 I h- 1 liquid water enters the chamber at the same time as dry air
and 15 gmol min- 1 dry oxygen gas. All the water is evaporated. The
out flowing gas is found to contain 1% (w/w) water. Draw and label
the flow sheet for this process.
224
Setting up a flow sheet
225
Batch mixing
• EX.3.
• Corn-steep liquor contains 2.5 % invert sugars and 50% water;
the rest can be considered solids. Beet molasses containing
50% sucrose, 1% invert sugars, 18% water and the remainder
solids, is mixed with corn-steep liquor in a mixing tank. Water
is added to produce a diluted sugar mixture containing 2%
(w/w) invert sugars. 125 kg corn-steep liquor and 45 kg
molasses are fed into the tank. Draw and label the flow sheet
for this process.
Solution:
Flow sheet.
The flow sheet for this batch process is shown in the Figure below .
The streams in the Figure represent masses added and removed at
the beginning and end of the mixing process respectively.
226
Batch mixing
227
Continuous acetic acid fermentation
• Ex.3 Continuous acetic acid fermentation

• Acetobacter aceti bacteria convert ethanol to acetic acid
under aerobic conditions. A continuous fermentation process
for vinegar production is proposed using non-viable A. aceti
cells immobilised on the surface of gelatin beads. The
production target is 2 kg h- 1 acetic acid; however the
maximum acetic acid concentration tolerated by the cells is
12%. Air is pumped into the fermenter at a rate of 200 gmol
h- 1.
• (a) What minimum amount of ethanol is required?
• (b) What minimum amount of water must be used to dilute
the ethanol to avoid acid inhibition?
• (c) What is the composition of the fermenter off-gas?
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
GENIE BIOCHIMIQUE ET
ENZYMATIQUE
ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION
ENZYME IMMOBILIZATION
• What is enzyme immobilization and Why
immobilize enzymes ?
– Before giving answers to these questions, let’s first of
all review what enzyme are.
• Enzymes are protein molecules which serve to accelerate
the chemical reactions of living cells (often by several
orders of magnitude).
• Without enzymes, most biochemical reactions would be
too slow to even carry out life processes. Enzymes display
great specificity and are not permanently modified by their
participation in reactions.
239
A review of what enzyme are
• Since they are not changed during the reactions,
it is cost-effective to use them more than once.
However, if the enzymes are in solution with the
reactants and/or products it is difficult to
separate them.
• Therefore, if they can be attached to the reactor
in some way, they can be used again after the
products have been removed.
• That is Why enzymes are immobilized.
240
What is an immobilized enzyme?
• The term "immobilized" means unable to
move or stationary. And that is exactly what
an immobilized enzyme is: an enzyme that is
physically attached to a solid support over
which a substrate is passed and converted to
product.
241
What are therefore the advantages of
immobilizing enzymes?
• There are a number of advantages to attaching
enzymes to a solid support and a few of the
major reasons are listed below:
• Multiple or repetitive use of a single batch of enzymes
• The ability to stop the reaction rapidly by removing the
enzyme from the reaction solution (or vice versa)
• Enzymes are usually stabilized by bounding
• Product is not contaminated with the enzyme (especially
useful in the food and pharmaceutical industries)
• Analytical purposes - long 1/2-life, predictable decay
rates, elimination of reagent preparation, etc
242
What are the factors which will affect the rate
of immobilized enzymes?
• It is important to understand the changes in physical and
chemical properties which an enzyme would be expected
to undergo upon immobilization (sometimes referred to as
insolubilization). There are a number of factors that affect
the rate of the enzyme’s catalytic activities.
• An enzymatic reaction is the conversion of one molecule
into another; a chemical reaction catalyzed at the reactive
sites on the enzyme. Considering the complex nature of the
enzyme itself, it is not unreasonable to expect that many
parameters will affect the rate of this catalytic activity.
Enzyme activity can be influenced by:
243
Which are the factors which will affect the
rate of immobilized enzymes?
• Spacing (steric hindrance)
• pH
• Temperature
• Substrate Concentration (Michaelis-
Menten Kinetics)
244
Spacing (Steric hinderance)
• Spacing
Any groups that separate the enzyme from the support (or
backbone) are referred to as spacing groups. For an
enzyme only one spacing group away, it would be very
difficult for a substrate to find the active site. The backbone
interferes sterically. But with more than one CH2 (or other
spacing groups), the enzyme can whip around and twist so
that the active site is much more accessible. Usually,
spacers that provide as much distance as six CH2 groups
are enough.
245
Effect of pH Change
• Effect of pH Change
Since enzymes are proteins, they are very sensitive to changes in
pH. Each enzyme has its own optimum range for pH where it will
be most active. pH changes could be to a combination of factors:
(1) the binding of the enzyme to substrate,
(2) the catalytic activity of the enzyme,
(3) the ionization of the substrate, and
(4) the variation of protein structure.
The initial rates for many enzymatic reactions exhibit bell shaped
curves as a function of pH as shown in the example below. (Note
that this particular enzyme is most active at a pH of zero, but this
is not the case for all.)
246
Effect of pH Change
247
Effect of Temperature Change
• Effect of Temperature Change

As temperature increases, the rate of
reaction also increases, as is observed in many
chemical reactions. However, the stability of
the protein also decreases due to thermal
degradation. Holding the enzyme at a high
enough temperature for a long period of time
may cook the enzyme.
248
249
Effect of Substrate Concentration
• Enzymes are not passive surfaces on which reactions take place but rather, are
complex molecular machines that operate through a great diversity of chemical
mechanisms. According to Michaelis-Menten kinetics, enzyme-substrate reactions
are actually comprised of two elementary reactions. The first is the when the
substrate forms a complex with the enzyme and then in the second, the complex
decomposes to product and enzyme.
• k1 k2
Enzyme + Substrate <----> Complex ----> Products + Enzyme
k-1
• According to this model, when the substrate concentration becomes high
enough to entirely convert all of the enzyme to the complex form, the second step
of the reaction becomes the rate-limiting step. Therefore, the overall conversion to
product becomes insensitive to further increases in substrate concentration. The
general expression for the rate of this reaction (velocity) becomes:
• v = d[P]/dt = k2*[complex]
250
Stability of immobilized enzyme
• Stability
• The stability of the enzymes can be expected to
change upon immobilization. It will increase if the
carrier provides a micro environment capable of
stabilizing the enzyme and decrease if the carrier is
capable of denaturing the enzymatic protein. It has
been found that enzymes coupled with inorganic
carriers are generally more stable than those attached
to organic polymers.
• Stability with respect to denaturing agents (agents that
will affect the stability of proteins) may also be
changed upon immobilization.
251
Methods of Immobilization
• What guides in the choice of method for

enzyme immobilization?
– When immobilizing an enzyme to a surface, it is
most important to;
• choose a method of attachment that will prevent loss of
enzyme activity by not changing the chemical nature or
reactive groups in the binding site of the enzyme. In
other words, attach the enzyme but do as little damage
as possible.
252
What guides in the choice of method for enzyme immobilization?
– The surface on which the enzyme is immobilized is

responsible for retaining the structure in the enzyme
through hydrogen bonding or the formation of electron
transition complexes. These links will prevent vibration of
the enzyme and thus increase thermal stability.
– The micro environment of surface and enzyme has a
charged nature that can cause a shift in the optimum pH
of the enzyme of up to 2 pH units. This may be
accompanied by a general broadening of the pH region in
which the enzyme can work effectively, allowing enzymes
that normally do not have similar pH regions to work
together.
253
Carrier-Binding Method of
immobilization
• Carrier-Binding (the binding of enzymes to
water-insoluble carriers )
The carrier-binding method is the oldest
immobilization technique for enzymes. In this
method, the amount of enzyme bound to the
carrier and the activity after immobilization
depend on the nature of the carrier. The
following picture shows how the enzyme is
bound to the carrier:
254
Carrier-Binding Method
255
On what depends the selection of the
Carrier?
• The selection of the carrier depends on:
– the nature of the enzyme itself, as well as the
• Particle size
• Surface area
• Molar ratio of hydrophilic to hydrophobic
groups
• Chemical composition
256
Carriers
• In general,
– an increase in the ratio of hydrophilic groups and
in the concentration of bound enzymes, results in a
higher activity of the immobilized enzymes.
– Some of the most commonly used carriers for
enzyme immobilization are polysaccharide
derivatives such as:
• cellulose,
• dextran,
• agarose, and
• polyacrylamide gel
257
Sub-classification of Carrier-binding method
• According to the binding mode of the enzyme,

the carrier-binding method can be further sub-
classified into:
• Physical Adsorption
• Ionic Binding
• Covalent Binding
258
Physical Adsorption
• This method for the immobilization of an enzyme is

based on the physical adsorption of enzyme protein on
the surface of water-insoluble carriers.
• Hence, the method causes little or no conformational
change of the enzyme or destruction of its active center.
• If a suitable carrier is found, this method can be both
simple and cheap.
• However, it has the disadvantage that the adsorbed
enzyme may leak from the carrier during use due to a
weak binding force between the enzyme and the carrier.
259
Physical Adsorption
• The earliest example of enzyme immobilization
using this method is the adsorption of beta-D-
fructo-furanosidase onto aluminum hydroxide.
• The processes available for physical adsorption
of enzymes are:
– Static Procedure
– Electro-deposition
– Reactor Loading Process
– Mixing or Shaking Bath Loading
Of the four techniques, the most frequently used in the lab is
Mixing-Bath Loading . For commercial purposes the
preferred method is Reactor Loading . 260
Physical Adsorption
• Advantages
– A major advantage of adsorption as a general method
of immobilizing enzymes is that usually no reagents
and only a minimum of activation steps are required.
– Adsorption tends to be less disruptive to the enzymatic
protein than chemical means of attachment because
the binding is mainly by hydrogen bonds, multiple
salt linkages, and Van der Waal's forces. In this
respect, the method bears the greatest similarity to the
situation found in natural biological membranes and
has been used to model such systems.
261
Physical Adsorption
• Disadvantages
• Because of the weak bonds involved, desorption of
the protein resulting from changes in temperature,
pH, ionic strength or even the mere presence of
substrate, is often observed.
• Another disadvantage is non-specific, further
adsorption of other proteins or other substances as
the immobilized enzyme is used. This may alter the
properties of the immobilized enzyme or, if the
substance adsorbed is a substrate for the enzyme, the
rate will probably decrease depending on the surface
mobility of enzyme and substrate.
262
Ionic Binding
• The ionic binding method relies on the ionic

binding of the enzyme protein to water-insoluble
carriers containing ion-exchange residues.
• Polysaccharides and synthetic polymers
having ion-exchange centers are usually used as
carriers.

263
Ionic Binding
• Advantages
• The binding of an enzyme to the carrier is
easily carried out, and the conditions are
much milder than those needed for the
covalent binding method.
– Hence, the ionic binding method causes little
changes in the conformation and the active site
of the enzyme.
– Therefore, this method yields immobilized
enzymes with high activity in most cases.
264
Ionic Binding
• Disadvantages
- Leakage of enzymes from the carrier may
occur in substrate solutions of high ionic
strength or upon variation of pH.
This is because the binding forces between
enzyme proteins and carriers are weaker
than those in covalent binding.
265
Ionic Binding
• What is the main difference between ionic
and physical adsorption binding modes?
• The main difference between ionic binding
and physical adsorption is that:
– the enzyme to carrier linkages are much stronger
for ionic binding although weaker than in
covalent binding .
266
Covalent Binding
• The most intensely studied of the immobilization
techniques is the formation of covalent bonds
between the enzyme and the support matrix.
– When trying to select the type of reaction by
which a given protein should be immobilized,
the choice is limited by two characteristics:
(1) the binding reaction must be performed
under conditions that do not cause loss of
enzymatic activity, and
(2) the active site of the enzyme must be
unaffected by the reagents used.
267

Covalent Binding
• The covalent binding method is based on:
– the binding of enzymes and water-insoluble carriers by
covalent bonds.
The functional groups that may take part in this
binding are listed below:
• Amino group Carboxyl group Sulfhydryl group
Hydroxyl group Imidazole group Phenolic group
Thiol group Threonine group Indole group
268
Covalent Binding
• This method can be further classified into :
– diazo,
– peptide and
– alkylation methods according to the mode of linkage.
Disadvantage
The conditions for immobilization by covalent binding
are much more complicated and less mild than in the
cases of physical adsorption and ionic binding.
Therefore, covalent binding may alter the conformational
structure and active center of the enzyme, resulting in
major loss of activity and/or changes of the substrate.
269
Covalent Binding
• Advantage
– The binding force between enzyme and carrier is
so strong that no leakage of the enzymes occurs,
even in the presence of substrate or solution of
high ionic strength.
270
Covalent Binding
• Protective methods of active sites:
– Covalent attachment to a support matrix must involve only
functional groups of the enzyme that are not essential for
catalytic action.
– Higher activities result from prevention of inactivation
reactions with amino acid residues of the active sites. A
number of protective methods have been devised:
• Covalent attachment of the enzyme in the presence of:
– a competitive inhibitor or substrate.
– A reversible, covalently linked enzyme-inhibitor complex.
– A chemically modified soluble enzyme whose covalent
linkage to the matrix is achieved by newly incorporated
residues.
– A zymogen precursor. 271
Effective Covalent Binding
• Hence, covalent binding can be brought about by the following:
• Diazotization : SUPPORT--N=N--ENZYME.

• Amide bond formation : SUPPORT--CO-NH--ENZYME
• Alkylation and Arylation: SUPPORT--CH2-NH-ENZYME
SUPPORT--CH2-S--ENZYME
• Schiff's base formation : SUPPORT--CH=N--ENZYME
• Amidation reaction : SUPPORT--CNH-NH--ENZYME
• Thiol-Disulfide interchange : SUPPORT--S-S--ENZYME
• UGI reaction
• Mercury-Enzyme interchange
• Gamma-Irradiation induced coupling
• Carrier binding with bifunctional reagents :
• SUPPORT-O(CH2)2 N=CH(CH2)3 CH=N-ENZYME
• The active site of the enzyme must not be hindered. There must be ample space between
272
the enzyme and the backbone.
Ugi reaction
• The Ugi reaction is a
multi-component reaction in organic chemistry
involving a ketone or aldehyde, an amine, an
isocyanide and a carboxylic acid to form a bis-
amide. The reaction is named after Ivar Karl
Ugi, who first published this reaction in 1962.
273
Increasing the yield of the immobilized enzyme
• It is possible in some cases to increase the number of
reactive residues of an enzyme in order to increase the
yield of the immobilized enzyme.
• This provides alternative reaction sites to those essential
for enzymatic activity.
• Similiarity between covalent bonding and cross-
linking
– provide stable, immobilized enzyme derivatives that do not leach
enzyme into the surrounding solution.
– The wide variety of binding reactions and insoluble carriers
(with functional groups capable of covalent coupling or being
activated to give such groups) makes this a generally applicable
method of immobilization. This is true even if very little is
known about the protein structure or active site of the enzyme to
be coupled. 274
Cross-Linking
• The Cross-linking method of enzyme

immobilization entails:
– The intermolecular cross-linking of enzymes by
bi-functional or multi-functional reagents.
275
Is the cross-linking of an enzyme to itself
of any use?
• NO!
– Cross-linking an enzyme to itself is both :
• expensive and insufficient, as some of the protein
material will inevitably be acting mainly as a
support.
• This will result in relatively low enzymatic activity.
• Generally, cross-linking is best used in
conjunction with one of the other methods.
• It is used mostly as a means of stabilizing adsorbed
enzymes and also for preventing leakage from
polyacrylamide gels.
276
• Advantage of covalent-linking in cross-linkage
immobilization
• Since the enzyme is covalently linked to the support
matrix, very little desorption is likely using this
method.
The most common reagent used for cross-
linking is glutaraldehyde.
• Disadvantage of Cross-Linking
• Cross-linking reactions are carried out under
relatively severe conditions. These harsh conditions
can change the conformation of active center of the
enzyme; and so may lead to significant loss of
activity. 277
Enzyme Immobilization by Entrapment
• Entrapping Enzymes:
– incorporating enzymes into the lattices of a semi-
permeable gel or enclosing the enzymes in a semi-
permeable polymer membrane.
– It is done in such a way as to retain protein while
allowing penetration of substrate. It can be
classified into lattice and micro capsule types.
278
279
• How does it differ from the covalent binding and

cross linking methods of immobilization?
– This method differs from the covalent binding and cross
linking in that the enzyme itself does not bind to the gel
matrix or membrane. This results in a wide applicability.
– The conditions used in the chemical polymerization
reaction are relatively severe and result in the loss of
enzyme activity. Therefore, careful selection of the most
suitable conditions for the immobilization of various
enzymes is required.
280
Lattice-Type entrapment
• Lattice-Type entrapment:
- involves entrapping enzymes within the
interstitial spaces of a cross-linked water-
insoluble polymer.
- Some synthetic polymers such as
polyarylamide, polyvinylalcohol, etc... and
natural polymer (starch) have been used to
immobilize enzymes using this technique.
281
Microcapsule-Type entrapping
• Microcapsule-Type entrapment:
– involves enclosing the enzymes within semi
permeable polymer membranes.
– The preparation of enzyme micro capsules
requires extremely well-controlled conditions and
the procedures for micro capsulation of enzymes
can be classified as:
• Interfacial Polymerization Method
• Liquid Drying
• Phase Separation
282
• Interfacial Polymerization Method
– In this procedure, enzymes are enclosed in semi
permeable membranes of polymers.
• An aqueous mixture of the enzyme and hydrophilic
monomer are emulsified in a water-immiscible organic
solvent.
• Then the same hydrophilic monomer is added to the
organic solvent by stirring. Polymerization of the monomers
then occurs at the interface between the aqueous and
organic solvent phases in the emulsion. The result is that the
enzyme in the aqueous phase is enclosed in a membrane of
polymer.
283
• Liquid Drying:
– In this process, a polymer is dissolved in a water-immiscible
organic solvent which has a boiling point lower than that of water.
– An aqueous solution of enzyme is dispersed in the organic phase
to form a first emulsion of water-in-oil type.
– The first emulsion containing aqueous micro droplets is then
dispersed in an aqueous phase containing protective colloidal
substances such as gelatin, and surfactants, and a secondary
emulsion is prepared.
– The organic solvent in then removed by warming in vacuum. A
polymer membrane is thus produced to give enzyme micro
capsules.
284
• Phase Separation:
– One purification method for polymers involves
dissolving the polymer in an organic solvent and
re-precipitating it. This is accomplished by adding
another organic solvent which is miscible with the
first, but which does not dissolve the polymer.
285
Form of an immobilized enzyme
• The form of an immobilized enzyme can
be classified into four types:
• particles,
• membranes,
• Tubes, and
• filters.
Most immobilized enzymes are in particle form
for ease of handling and ease of application.
286
Form of an immobilized enzyme
• Particles - The particle form is described in the above section.
• Membranes - Enzyme membranes can be prepared by
attaching enzymes to membrane-type carriers, or by molding
into membrane form. The molding is done after the enzymes
have been enclosed within semi-permeate membranes of
polymer by entrapment.
• Tubes - Enzyme tubes are produced using Nylon and
polyacrylamide tubes as carriers. The polymer tube is first
treated in a series of chemical reactions and the enzyme is
bound by diazo coupling to give a tube in a final step.
• Fibers - Enzymes that have been immobilized by entrapment
in fibers to form enzyme fibers.
287
Solid Supports
• The solid supports used for enzyme
immobilization can be:
– inorganic or
– organic .
Some organic supports include:
Polysaccharides, Proteins, Carbon, Polystyrenes,
Polyacrylates,
Maleic Anhydride based Copolymers,
Polypeptides, Vinyl and Allyl Polymers, and
Polyamides.
288
Choice of Reactor for Enzyme immobilization
• Types of Reactors
– In an enzyme reactor, the highest specific enzyme
activity is desirable. It is considered an added
bonus if the support that is used also aides in
separation.
• One approach is to use a molecular sieve as the support
and pulse the reactor bed with the alternating passage
of substrate solution and water. The result is that
bands of unused substrate and product progress down
the column. It so happens that the enzymes for which
this technique would be useful are also those which in
some cases benefit in having the enzyme immobilized
on a porous support.
289
Case of an industrial reactor
• For an industrial reactor,
– it is preferable to use supports that are non-
biodegradable such as:
• glass,
• silica,
• Celite,
• Bentonite,
• alumina, or
• titanium oxide, if possible.
Even the linkages between enzyme and support can be
non-biodegradable, as they are in the case of titanium.
290
Case of an industrial reactor
• In some of the of the above supports,
– the physical nature of the surface becomes a major
problem. Thus, some supports that form excellent
packed beds fail to do so when coated with enzyme.
Particles which ideally self-suspend in a fluid bed may
form aggregates during use which will require more
power to pump through substrate. Many problems were
encountered using porous glass supports until someone
realized that the glass itself could dissolve. This problem
has been eliminated by treatment of the glass surface
with zirconium.
291
Stirred Tank Reactors
A batch stirred tank reactor :
– is the simplest type of reactor. It is composed of a
reactor and a mixer such as a stirrer, a turbine wing
or a propeller. The batch stirred tank reactor is
illustrated below:
•
292
Limits of a batch stirred tank reactor
• This reactor is useful for substrate solutions
of high viscosity and for immobilized enzymes
with relatively low activity.
• However, a problem that arises is that an
immobilized enzyme tends to decompose upon
physical stirring.
• The batch system is generally suitable for the
production of rather small amounts of
chemicals.
293
A continuous stirred tank reactor
• A continuous stirred tank reactor is shown
below. It is more efficient than a batch stirred
tank reactor but the equipment is slightly
more complicated.
294
Packed Bed Reactors
• Packed Bed Reactors

• Continuous packed bed reactors are the most
widely used reactors for immobilized enzymes and
immobilized microbial cells.
– In these systems, it is necessary to consider:
• the pressure drop across the packed bed or column, and
• the effect of the column dimensions on the reaction rate.
There are three substrate flow possibilities in a packed bed and they
are illustrated below:
• Downward flow method
• Upward flow method
• Recycling method
295
Packed Bed Reactors
296
Packed Bed Reactors
• The recycling method is advantageous when the
linear velocity of the substrate solution affects
the reaction flow rate. This is because the
recycling method allows the substrate solution to
be passed through the column at a desired
velocity.
• For industrial applications, upward flow is
generally preferred over downward flow because
it does not compress the beds in enzyme columns
as downward flow does. When gas is produced
during an enzyme reaction, upward flow is
preferred. 297
Advantages continuous packed bed reactor
over a batch packed bed reactor
• A continuous packed bed reactor has the
following advantages over a batch packed
bed reactor:
• Easy, automatic control and operation
• Reduction of labor costs
• Stabilization of operating conditions
• Easy quality control of products
298
Types of Continuous reactors
• Continuous reactors may include:
– Stirred Tank Reactor with Filtration Recovery
– Stirred Tank Reactor with Settling Tank Recovery
– Stirred Tank Reactor with Immobilized Enzyme
Basket Paddles
– Stirred Tank Reactor with Ultra filtration
Recovery
299
Combined CSTR/UF Reactor
• A combined CSTR/UF reactor is a

combination of a continuously stirred tank
reactor and an Ultra Filtration Unit.
• This type of reactor begins as a typical CSTR.
However, the product passes through an Ultra
Filtration Unit where the enzyme is removed
and recycled back into the reactor.
• An example of what this combination rector can
look like is shown below:
300
A combined CSTR/UF reactor
301
A combined CSTR/UF
• In a combined CSTR/UF reactor :
– the enzymes are immobilized in that they can not leave the reactor because of
the filtration unit.
• This allows continuous processing with free enzymes in the CSTR.
• The Ultra Filtration Unit contains a membrane which provides a
semipermeable barrier which allows products and unreacted substrate,
if there is any, to pass through while holding back the enzyme.
• There are other possibilities for similar reactors, such as :
• combined reactor-separators. However, the combined CSTR/UF reactor
has proven useful for several types of reactions where a typical
immobilized enzyme would not be as effective. One example of this is
for the conversion of benzylpenicillin to 6-aminopenicillanic acid by
penicillin amidase.
302
Recycle Reactor
• A recycle reactor:
– is a reactor that is not seen very often, but is very
important to consider when studying immobilized
enzymes. It is very important to chemical
engineering because it allows some substrates to
be processed, which could not be processed using
other reactor types.
– An example of a recycle reactor can be seen
below:
303
Recycle Reactor
304
Recycle Reactor
• In a recycle reactor,
– a portion of the product stream is recycled and mixed
with the inlet flow to the reactor. If the entire product
stream is recycled back to the inlet stream, then it is
called a total recycle reactor.
– This can obviously only be used in a batch process,
because if the entire product stream is recycled back into
the reactor in a continuous reactor, the volume of the
reactor would increase to infinity. Therefore, we will
only consider partial recycle streams in a continuous
reactor on this page.
305
Recycle Reactor
• This type of rector
– is used when you have a substrate that cannot be completely
processed on a single pass, such as with an insoluble
substrate.
– These reactors continue to move the same substrate through
the reactor so that the effective contact time is high enough to
allow the substrate to be processed. Recycle reactors also
allow the reactor to operate at high fluid velocities.
– This is important because it minimizes the bulk mass transfer
resistance to the transport of the substrate.
– It is important to remember that a recycle reactor is simply a
reactor, such as a CSTR or fluidized-bed reactor, with a
recycle stream. 306
Fluidized-Bed Reactor
• The fluidized bed reactor is:
– most suitable when a high viscosity substrate
solution and a gaseous substrate or product are
used in a continuous reaction system. The figure
below illustrates a continuous fluidized bed
reactor:
307
308
• In this system, care must be taken to avoid the
destruction and decomposition of immobilized
enzymes. The particle size of immobilized
enzymes is an important factor for the
formation of a smooth fluidized bed.
309
Fluidized-bed reactor
• A fluidized-bed reactor is a combination of
the two most common, packed-bed and stirred
tank, continuous flow reactors. It is very
important to chemical engineering because of
its excellent heat and mass transfer
characteristics. The fluidized-bed reactor can
be seen below:
310
311
• In a fluidized-bed reactor,
– The substrate is passed upward through the immobilized
enzyme bed at a high enough velocity to lift the particles.
However, the velocity must not be so high that the
enzymes are swept away from the reactor entirely.
– This causes some mixing, more than the piston-flow
model in the packed-bed reactor, but complete mixing as
in the CSTR model. This type of reactor is ideal for
highly exothermic reactions because it eliminates local
hot-spots, due to its mass and heat transfer
characteristics mentioned before.
– It is most often applied in immobilized-enzyme catalysis
where viscous, particulate substrates are to be handled.
312
Membrane Reactor using hollow fibers
• Ultrafiltration Membrane Devices
– A continuous ultrafiltration membrane device is
shown below:
313
Ultrafiltration Membrane Devices
• This device is suitable for a substrate of high

molecular weight and a product of low
molecular weight. Since the enzyme used here
is soluble, no improvement in the stability of
the enzyme can be expected.
• A hollow fiber device can also be used and its
characteristics are essentially the same as
those of an ultrafiltration membrane.
314
Applications
of immobilized
biocatalysts
315
Applications
of immobilized biocatalysts
• Isomerization
of glucose to fructose (High fructose syrup)
– Isomerization of glucose to fructose
First, an understanding of the forms of glucose
and fructose is needed.
D-glucose looks like:
316
Applications
of immobilized biocatalysts
• Isomerization
of glucose to fructose (High fructose syrup)
– while D-fructose looks like:
317
Isomerization of glucose to fructose (High fructose syrup)
• This isomerization converts glucose which is not

very sweet to fructose, the most sweet of the natural
sugars.
• Syrups from this process compete with sucrose (cane
sugar) in many food applications. Almost all
manufacturers of soft drinks use high fructose
syrups because they are less expensive than
sucrose. This was devastating to world prices of cane
sugar and crippled the economies of some countries.
318
Isomerization
of glucose to fructose (High fructose syr
up)
• The isomerization of glucose to fructose is part of the glycolysis
cycle that converts glucose to pyruvate.
• The way this is done is to isomerize the aldehyde (hemiacetal)
glucose to the ketone (as a hemiacetal) fructose,and make
another phosphate ester.
• The isomerization takes advantage of the ease of breakage of a
C-H bond which involves a carbon next to a carbonyl carbon.
This is important in the next step which cleaves the bond
between carbons three and four of fructose. It is noted that this
bond involves the carbon next to the carbonyl carbon of fructose.
This cleavage would not have been possible without the
isomerization of glucose to fructose, because the carbonyl group
of glucose is too far from carbons three and four to make that
bond breakable. 319
Isomerization
up)
• Glucose isomerase (D-glucose ketoisomerase)
causes the isomerization of glucose to
fructose.
• Glucose has 70-75% the sweetening strength
of beet sugar (sucrose), but fructose is twice as
sweet as sucrose. Thus, processes for the
manufacture of fructose are of considerable
value.
320
Isomerization
up)
• Novo Industries has developed glucose
isomerase from B. coagulans for commercial
use. In this immobilized enzyme process, the
microorganism carries out a direct
isomerization of the glucose.
• This glucose isomerase is primarily a xylose
isomerase, so xylose, or a xylose-containing
compound must be added for the induction
of the enzyme.
321
Isomerization
of glucose to fructose (High fructose syrup
)
• In batch processes, B. coagulans does not
form the enzyme during the log phase. So, as
soon as the glucose concentration in the
nutrient solution approaches zero, growth
ceases.
• Additional carbon sources present in the
medium are then metabolized, and enzyme
production begins. Enzyme activity is at a
maximum about 24 hours after incubation.
322
Isomerization
)•
In wild strains of B. coagulans, both cobalt and magnesium are
required for maximum enzyme production, but mutants have
been isolated that don't require cobalt.
• Either yeast extract or corn steep liquor can be used as the
nitrogen source; this choice is vital for the yield, and the
concentration must be optimized for the specific process at
hand. Because it is often difficult to standardize the nitrogen
source, the fermentation yield may vary considerably from
batch to batch.
• A table illustrating this dramatic effect is shown below
(Crueger and Crueger, 1989. Biotechnology: A Textbook of
Industrial Microbiology. Science Tech Publishers, Madison,
Wisconsin.) 323
Isomerization
up)
324
Isomerization
)
• In a continuous fermentation process, the
growth-limiting substrate must be glucose.
For optimal enzyme yields, oxygen limitation is
also necessary since microaerophillic
conditions inside the cells stabilize the system.
325
Isomerization
up)
• The commercial process for production of
fructose from glucose became feasible only
when procedures for immobilization of the
enzyme were developed, so that the same batch
of enzymes could be used repeatedly. Since
glucose isomerase is formed intracellularly in
most strains, many commercial processes are
carried out with immobilized cells or by the
addition of partly broken cells.
326
Procedure for carrying out the conversion from glucose to fructose
• Procedure for carrying out the conversion

• The system shown below, with multiple
bioreactors connected in series, produces 100
tons of fructose per day with two parallel
rows, each with three 2.2 m3 columns.
327
Procedure for carrying out the conversion
328
Procedure for carrying out the conversion from glucose to fructose
• The starting material is glucose syrup, with a dry weight of

40-45% and 93-96% glucose. In order to prevent loss of
enzyme activity during isomerization, the solution must first be
purified by filtration, carbon treatment and ion exchange.
Magnesium is then added, as an activator, and the reaction is
run at pH 8.5 and a temperature of 60-65oC for 0.8 – 4 hours.
• Compared to the batch process, at the same conversion

temperature, the continuous system gives a considerably
better product in 20% of the reactor time and with only 4% of
the reactor volume.
329
Procedure for carrying out the
conversion from glucose to fructose
• Enzyme-catalyzed conversion of starch to glucose
and fructose
330
• Starch liquefaction and saccharification
331
• Isommerization with immobilized glucose isommerase
332
Lactose hydrolysis
• Lactose hydrolysis (
dairy products converted to avoid lactose intolerance)
• The main purpose of using immobilized enzymes here is to
convert the disaccharide lactose via hydrolysis into its
monosaccharide components, glucose and galactose. Lactose is
a disaccharide that occurs naturally in both human and cow's
milk. It is widely used in baking and in commercial infant-milk
formulas.
• One large problem with lactose is that many people are lactose
intolerant - meaning that their body is incapable of digesting
lactose. So it must be hydrolyzed into its monosaccharide
components, allowing digestion which is the purpose of
products today such as LACTAID.
333
Lactose hydrolysis
• Like cellobiose and maltose, lactose is a reducing
sugar. It exhibits muta - rotation and is a 1,4'-
beta-linked glycoside. Unlike cellobiose and
maltose, however, lactose contains two different
monosaccharide units. Acidic hydrolysis of
lactose yields 1 equiv of D-glucose and 1 equiv of
D-galactose; the two are joined by a beta-
glycoside bond between C1 of galactose and C4
of glucose. In other words, 100 g of lactose will
produce 50g each of galactose and glucose.
334
Lactose hydrolysis
Structure of Lactose
335
Lactose hydrolysis
• Maltose consists of two α-D-glucose
molecules with the alpha bond at carbon 1 of
one molecule attached to the oxygen at
carbon 4 of the second molecule. This is
called a 1α→4 glycosidic linkage. Cellobiose
is a disaccharide consisting of two β-D-glucose
molecules that have a 1β→4 linkage as in
cellulose. Cellobiose has no taste whereas
maltose is about one-third as sweet as sucrose.
336
Lactose hydrolysis
Structure of Cellobiose
337
Lactose hydrolysis
Structure of Maltose
338
339

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Pr. Emmanuel NSO

Chemical engineering largely involves the design,

Antibiotics, vitamins, amino acids, fine chemicals,

The type of reactor depends on:

i. reliable sterilization and ease of maintenance of sterility,

Biochemical rectors are made of:

• Stainless steel to maintain sterile conditions.

• Simple geometric shape, minimum number of

• Valves are flush bottom diaphragm valves to avoid

3.1. Mode of Operation

• The products are discharged at the end of the cycle. These

In the extended fed batch,

In the repeated fed batch

• Continuous fermentors are not generally used due to the

• In fed batch the feed rates and volume-vs-time pattern could be

• In the extended fed batch the feed is continuous, thereby

• Continuous stirred tank reactor is ideally suited

• while the other two reactors can be used for

Although a CSTR may be better from the viewpoint of biomass

But presence of salts like NaCl decrease oxygen solubility by a

Metabolic heat generation rates for fungi, bacteria,

• Spherical cells are smaller and less sensitive to shear than

• Filamentous organisms generally agglomerate leading to low

For example, if methane is produced excessively during

In the case of volatile substrates, cocurrent flow with

Higher paraffin has a reducing effect on the oxygen

Stirred tanks with helical stirrer can be used for highly

Fine long threads in dilute suspension lowers the flow

In surface reactors the culture adheres to a solid surface

In submerged reactors gas-to-liquid mass transfer is

The reactors systems:

(1) mechanically stirred systems with agitators

(2) forced convection of the liquid using recirculating

(3) pneumatic operation by pumping compressed air

Marine propeller, hydrofoil, or pitched blade turbine stirrer is used to

Marine propeller Hydrofoil impeller pitched blade turbine stirrer

Flat blade turbine Rushton turbine stirrers

Helical stirrer or impeller

Double Helix Ribbon stirrer

Understanding the growth kinetics of microbial,

Besides the assumptions for the cells, the medium

It appears that dCx/dt and rx are always the same,

Therefore, the growth rate defined as the change of

curve, while the division rate is the slope of the log2CN

The ideal tubular-flow fermenter without radial

Mass balance over reactors

Substrate (-rS) = (-qS)CX

YSX = rate of biomass production / rate of substrate

the substrate, respectively, inside the rector and rA is the reaction

The rate equation could be a simple one of the form kCnA or of

In substrate limited feeding phase, CS is very low. Thus,

reactor volume is constant. The concentration of the out going fluid (C 0)

In an ideal reactor the continuous phase flows as a plug: hence,

Often the feed stream of a continuous unit may contain only

The rate of cell production per unit reactor volume is

Higher conversion (or lower CAsf ) could be achieved by

*Bioprocessing is an essential part of many:

– Defintion of Bioprocess engineering:

• After cloning, the growth and production

Conditions of optimal activity of cells

• System and Process

Similarly, division of both sides of Eq. (2.10) by 453.6 g gives another

To calculate how many pounds are in 200 g, we can multiply 200 g by