Topic 3:

Cell Structures
 Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane (also known as the cell
membrane) separates the internal environment of
the cell from its external environment // marks the
boundary between the outside & inside of a cell
It regulates the entrance and exit of molecules
into and out of the cell.
The steady internal environment maintained is
called homeostasis.
Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

In prokaryotic & eukaryotic cell, the plasma

membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
The fluid mosaic model states that the
protein molecules embedded in the
membrane have a pattern (a mosaic) within
the phospholipid bilayer
The pattern varies according to the type of
cell (same membrane but/ at different time)
Plasma Membrane Structure and Function (cont.)

Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins

Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads
Face inside and outside of cell (water
present)
Hydrophobic (water-fearing) nonpolar tails
Face each other, away from water
Cholesterol (animal cells) controls excess
fluidity
Plasma Membrane Structure and Function (cont…)

Membrane proteins throughout membrane

may be:
Peripheral proteins – associated with
only one side of membrane
Integral proteins – span the membrane
Can protrude from one or both sides
Embedded within the membrane
Able to move laterally
Plasma Membrane Structure and Function (cont…)
Both phospholipids and protein can have
attached carbohydrate chains.
Glycolipids are lipids attached to
carbohydrates.
Glycoproteins are proteins attached to
carbohydrates.
 plasma membrane
carbohydrate Outside
chain

hydrophobic hydrophilic
glycoprotein tails heads
phospholipid
glycolipid
bilayer

filaments of cytoskeleton Inside

A model of the plasma

peripheral protein integral protein
membrane composed of
cholesterol
a phospholipid bilayer
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
The protein that occur within a membrane have varied,
specific function:
Channel protein
Carrier protein
Cell recognition protein
Receptor protein
Enzymatic protein
Junction protein /Adhesion protein
1) Channel protein are
simple protein pores.
Form a tunnel for
specific molecules across
the entire membrane.
allow substances to move
across the membrane
(allowing only one /a few
types of specific molecule to
simply move across the
membrane channel.

a. Channel protein
2) Carrier protein @ Transport protein
combine with substances to assist their
movement across membranes.
•Involved in passage
of molecules& ions
through membrane,
sometimes requiring
input of energy (ATP)

b. Transport protein
3) Cell recognition protein (Crp)
•Crp are glycoproteins
•Crp enable our body to distinguish between
our own cells and cells
of other organisms
•These proteins help the
body recognize when it is
being invaded by
pathogens.
c. Cell recognition protein
 4) Receptor protein
 have a shape that can only bind specific molecule
(called a signal molecules.

 The binding of a signal

signal molecule cause the
receptor protein to change
its shape & thereby bring
cellular to bind causing
a cellular response

d. Receptor protein
 5) Enzymatic protein
• membrane proteins that carry out chemical
reactions.
• Directly participate in
metabolic reactions carry
out metabolic reactions
Directly
Without enzyme a cell
would be never able to
perform the degradative
that are important to its e. Enzymatic protein
function
6) Junction protein /Adhesion protein
connect cells to each other and allow them to
communicate.
Protein that are involved in
forming various types of
junction between cells.
•Form junctions between
cells
•Cell-to-cell adhesion
and communication

f. Junction proteins
The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane can regulate the passage of
molecules into and out of the cell because it is selectively
permeable.
Meaning that certain substances can across the membrane
while other cannot.
Which molecules can freely cross the membrane and which
may require carrier proteins and/or energy depends on
Size
Nature of molecule – polarity, charge
 The permeability of the Plasma
Membrane (cont.)

Small, uncharged molecules freely cross

membrane
Examples: CO2, O2, glycerol, and alcohol
Slip in between the hydrophilic heads and pass
through hydrophobic tails
Driven by the concentration gradient
 The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
(cont.)
Concentration gradient
More of a substance on one side of the
membrane
Going “down” a concentration gradient
From an area of higher to lower concentration
Going “up” a concentration gradient
From an area of lower to higher concentration
Requires input of energy
The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
(cont.)

Water which is polar would not be expected to

readily cross the membrane.
Aquaporins are special channels that allow
water to cross the membrane.
Aquaporins are present in the majority of cells.
The Permeability of the Plasma Membrane
(cont.)
Large molecules, ions, and charged molecules are
unable to freely cross the membrane, but can cross
the membrane via
Channel proteins forming a pore through the
membrane
Carrier proteins that are specific for substance
they transport
Vesicle formation in endocytosis or exocytosis
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

charged molecules
and ions + -
H 2O

noncharged
molecules

macromolecule
+
-

phospholipid
molecule

protein
Passage of Molecules Into and Out of
the Cell
Movement of molecules: Diffusion
and osmosis
Diffusion:
Movement of molecules from an area of higher
(going “down” to lower concentration
Down a concentration gradient
Occurs until equilibrium is reached
For example, when a crystal of dye is placed in
water the dye and water molecules move about
until equilibrium occurs
Solution contains a solute (solid) and a solvent
(liquid)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

time time

crystal dye

a. Crystal of dye is placed in the water b. Diffusion of water and dye molecules c. Equal distribution of molecules results

Once the solute and solvent are evenly distributed, their

molecules continue to move about, but there is no net
movement of either one in any direction
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

 Gases can diffuse

through a O2

membrane O2 O2
O2

 Oxygen and carbon O2

O2 O2

oxygen
dioxide enter and O2 O2
O2
exit this way O2
O2 bronchiole

alveolus capillary

Figure 4.5
 Osmosis
The diffusion of water across a differentially
(selectively) permeable membrane, due to
concentration differences is called osmosis
Diffusion always occurs from higher to lower
concentration.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops
in a system due to osmosis.
The greater the possible osmotic pressure, the
more likely it is that water will diffuse in that
direction.

* Water (a solvent) more across the mebrane into the area of

lower water (or higher solute)
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

less water (higher more water (lower

percentage of solute) percentage of solute)
< 10%
10% water solute

more water (lower 5% thistle > 5% less water (higher

percentage of solute) tube percentage of solute)
a. c.
differentially
permeable
membrane

beaker

b.

Membrane is not permeable to solute

 Osmosis (cont.)
Isotonic: the solute concentration is equal
inside and outside of a cell
Hypotonic: a solution has a lower solute
concentration than the inside of a cell
Hypertonic: a solution has a higher solute
concentration than the inside of a cell
 Animal cells Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

plasma 6.6 µm 6.6 µm 6.6 µm

nucleus membrane
In an isotonic solution, there is no net In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the
movement of water . which may burst (lysis). cell, which shrivels (crenation).

Isotonic © David M. Phillips/Photo Researchers, Inc.

No net gain or loss of water

0.9% NaCl
Hypotonic
Cell gains water
Cytolysis – hemolysis
Hypertonic
Cell loses water
Crenation
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Plant cells

nucleus cell
wall
central plasma
vacuole membrane
chloroplast

25 µm 25 µm 40 µm
In an isotonic solution, there is no In a hypotonic solution, the central vacuole In a hypertonic solution, the central vacuole loses
net movement of water. fills with water, turgor pressure develops, and water, the cytoplasm shrinks (plasmolysis), and
chloroplasts are seen next to the cell wall. chloroplasts are seen in the center of the cell.
Isotonic (bottom left, center): © Dwight Kuhn; (bottom right): © Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold

No net gain or loss of water

Hypotonic
Cell gains water
Turgor pressure keeps plant erect – cell wall
Hypertonic
Cell loses water
Plasmolysis
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Animal cells

6.6 µm 6.6 µm 6.6 µm

plasma
nucleus membrane
In an isotonic solution, there is no net In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the
movement of water . which may burst (lysis). cell, which shrivels (crenation).

Plant cells

nucleus cell
wall plasma
central
vacuole membrane

chloroplast

25 µm 25 µm 40 µm
In an isotonic solution, there is no In a hypotonic solution, the central vacuole In a hypertonic solution, the central vacuole loses
net movement of water. fills with water , turgor pressure develops, and water, the cytoplasm shrinks (plasmolysis), and
chloroplasts are seen next to the cell wall. chloroplasts are seen in the center of the cell.

(all top): © David M. Phillips/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bottom left, center): © Dwight Kuhn; (bottom right): © Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold
Movement of molecules: Transport
by Carrier Proteins

The plasma membrane prevent/delay the passage of all

but few substances.

Substances enter or exit cells because of carrier

proteins.

Carrier proteins are specific.

Combine with a molecule or ion to be transported
across the membrane
Change shape to move molecules across membranes
 Transport by Carrier Proteins (cont.)
Carrier proteins are required for

Facilitated Transport
Active Transport
 Facilitated Transport
Facilitated transport explains the passage of
molecules such as glucose or amino acids.
Neither molecule is lipid-soluble.
Reversible combination and transport occurs.
Like diffusion, ATP is not required because
molecules are transported down their
concentration gradient.
 Facilitated Transport
Inside

plasma
membrane
carrier
protein

solute
Outside

Small molecules that are not lipid-soluble

Molecules follow the concentration gradient
Energy is not required
 Active Transport
Active Transport
Molecules or ions combine with carrier proteins.
Often called pumps
Molecules move against the concentration
gradient
Entering or leaving cell
Accumulate either inside or outside the cell
Energy and carrier proteins are required.
Usually ATP is used
 Active Transport (cont.)
Proteins in active transport are referred to as
pumps.
Proteins use energy to move molecules against
the concentration gradient.
Na+/K+ pump is especially important for nerve and
muscle cells –it moves Na+ out and K+ into cells.
The carrier changes shape after phosphate
attaches, and then again after it detaches.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

carrier K+ Outside
protein K+
K+ K+

K+ + Na+ K+ K+
Na K+
Na +
K+ K+
+
Na + Na
Na + Na+ Na + Na +
Inside
Na +
1. Carrier has a shape that allows
it to take up 3 Na+. Na +

Na + P
+
+ Na
Na
K+ K+ ATP ADP Na +

6. Change in shape results and 2. ATP is split, and phosphate

causes carrier to release 2 K+ group attaches to carrier.
inside the cell.

Na + + Na + + K+
Na K+ Na
+
K+ Na

Na
+
K+ K+ K+

K+

K+

Na + +
+
K+ Na P
Na K+ +
Na
+
Na
P K +
K +
Na +
Na +

5. Phosphate group is released 3. Change in shape results and

from carrier. causes carrier to release 3 Na+
outside the cell.
P
+
Na
Na +

4. Carrier has a shape that

allows it to take up 2 K+.
 Sodium-Potassium Pump
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

carrier K+ Outside
protein K+
K+ K+

+
Na + Na
Na + Na+ Na +
Inside
1. Carrier has a shape that allows
it to take up 3 Na+.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

K+ K+
K +

K+

Na +

Na +

Na +
P
+
Na
ADP Na +
ATP

2. ATP is split, and phosphate

group attaches to carrier. Figure 4.9
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Na + + K+
K+ Na
+
Na

K+ K+

P
+
Na
Na +

3. Change in shape results and

causes carrier to release 3 Na+
outside the cell.
Figure 4.9
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

+
Na + K Na
+
+
Na K+
K+ K+

P +
Na
Na +

4. Carrier has a shape that

allows it to take up 2 K+.
Figure 4.9
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Na + +
K + Na

+
Na K+

K+

K+

+
Na
P
Na +

5. Phosphate group is released

from carrier.

Figure 4.9
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

K+ +
Na+
Na
Na +
K+

Na +
+
Na
K+ K+

6. Change in shape results and

causes carrier to release 2 K+
Figure 4.9
 Movement of molecules: Bulk
Transport
Macromolecules are transported into or out of
cells by vesicle formation.
Macromolecules are too large to be transported
by carrier proteins.
Energy is required to form vesicles.
Vesicle formation is called membrane-assisted
transport.
Exocytosis – exit from cell
Endocytosis – enter into cell
 Exocytosis
The vesicle fuses with plasma membrane as
secretion occurs.
The vesicle membrane becomes part of plasma
membrane.
Cells of particular organs are specialized to
produce and export molecules.
Pancreatic cells release insulin or enzymes.
Anterior pituitary cells release growth
hormone.
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

plasma membrane Outside

Inside
secretory
vesicle
 Endocytosis
Cells take in substances by vesicle formation.
Part of the plasma membrane invaginates to
envelop the substance.
The membrane then pinches off to form an
intracellular vesicle.
3 types of endocytosis
Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
 Endocytosis
Phagocytosis: large, particulate matter such as
“food” molecules or viruses or whole cells
Amoeba and macrophages
Pinocytosis: liquids and small particles dissolved
in liquid
Certain blood cells or plant root cells
Receptor Mediated Endocytosis: a type of
pinocytosis that involves a coated pit
Certain placental cells
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

plasma membrane
paramecium

pseudopod
of amoeba vacuole
forming

vacuole

a. Phagocytosis 399.9 µm

vesicles
forming

solute
vesicle

b. Pinocytosis 0.5 µm

receptor
protein

coated coated
solute
pit vesicle

coated vesicle
coated pit

c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
a(right): © Eric Grave/Phototake; b(right): © Don W. Fawcett/Photo Researchers, Inc.; c(both): Courtesy Mark Bretscher
 Modifications of Cell Surfaces
Cells live and interact with external environment.
Extracellular environment is made of large molecules
produced by nearby cells.
Materials are deposited by secretion.
Plants, prokaryotes, fungi are surrounded by cell
walls.
Animals have more varied extracellular environments
that can change.
 Cell Surfaces in Animals
Animal cells have two different types of cell
surfaces.
Extracellular matrix outside of cells
Junctions that occur between cells

Both can associate with the cytoskeleton and

contribute to cell-to-cell communication
 Extracellular Matrix
A meshwork of proteins and polysaccharides
closely associated with cells that produced them
Common structural proteins in ECM
Collagen resists stretching
Elastin provide resilience to ECM
Fibronectin is an adhesive protein that links
integrin
 Extracellular Matrix (cont.)
The strength and flexibility of extracellular
matrix varies.
The extracellular matrix of cartilage can be
very flexible.
The extracellular matrix of bone is hard
because mineral salts are deposited outside the
cell.
Extracellular Matrix (cont.)
 Junctions Between Cells
Cell surfaces in certain tissues of animals
Junctions Between Cells
Adhesion Junctions
Intercellular filaments between cells
Tight Junctions
Form impermeable barriers between cells
Gap Junctions
Plasma membrane channels are joined
(allows communication)
Junctions Between Cells (cont.)